American Coal Ash Association, Fly Ash Facts for Highway Engineers, December 1995

Coal fly ash is a coal combustion by-product (CCB) that has numerous applications as an engineering material; the annual production of CCBs is nearly 82 million metrics tons (90 million tons). Since the first edition of Fly Ash Facts for Highway Engineers in 1986, substantial information has been accumulated regarding the use of fly ash. The purpose of this document is to provide technical information about engineering applications to potential users of CCBs and to advance the use of CCBs in ways that are technically sound, commercially competitive, and environmentally safe.

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Abdelghani, A.A., Anderson, A.C., Khoury, G.A., and Chang, S.N., 1990, Fate of Ethylene Glycol in the Environment: Louisiana Transportation Research Center FHWA/LA-90/228, 108 p.

The Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development uses ethylene glycol (EG) as a deicing agent on bridges. This study was undertaken to assess the impact of ethylene glycol on workers and the environment aft er spraying. The objectives of the project were: 1. To determine the level of exposure of workers spraying EG on bridges; 2. To monitor the level of EG in the atmosphere above sprayed bridges; 3. To determine the aqueous concentrations of EG due to runoff of the chemical from sprayed bridges to the aquatic environment; 4. To determine the effect of EG in the aquatic environment including sorption capacity to soil, acute toxicity to bluegill sunfish, crawfish, and microorganisms, bioaccumulation in crawfish, and biodegradation by soil microorganisms. Some conclusions include: 1. Air samples collected above sprayed bridges continued far less EG than the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) recommended values; 2. EG concentrations in sediment and water collected from areas under sprayed bridges were below detection limits. EG did not adsorb to soils in laboratory sorption studies; 3. Common soil microorganisms readily degraded EG; 4. Acute toxicity values for crawfish, bluegill sunfish and soil microorganisms were far above the expected environmental concentration resulting from normal applications; 5. In a bioaccumulation study, crawfish did not concentrate EG to levels above the water concentration. The amount of EG taken up in crawfish edible tissues does not pose acute health effects to humans. One would have to consume 63,900 contaminated crawfish or 384 kg of crawfish edible tissues at one time to be affected by EG toxicity; 6. In a depuration study, crawfish were able to completely eliminate the accumulated EG within 5 to 6 days. Recommendations: 1. While concentrations and toxicity of EG were low, care should be taken in handling the compound. For example: a) all applicators should stay inside the cab of the spray rig and windows should be kept closed; b) Care should be taken to protect the nads wearing gloves during handling of concentrated EG; c) It is advisable to stand upwind of the prevailing wind direction when mixing EG to avoid aerosol inhalation; d) Spills and direct application of EG to water should be avoided. 2. Acute studies on juvenile crawfish and other aquatic species could be done to determine potential acute effects on more sensitive stages of the organism.

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Anderson, B.A., Simons, D.B., 1984, Soil Erosion Study of Exposed Highway Construction Slopes and Roadways, Transportation Research Record No. 948, p 40-47.

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Armstrong, D.E., and Llena, R., 1992, Stormwater Infiltration: Potential for Pollutant Removal, Water Chemistry Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison, WI.

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Armstrong, J.E., and Barnes, R.S., 1984, Kalispell Storm Drain Monitoring Project: Montana Department of Highway Final Report MF 6799(09), 116 p.

The Montana Department of Highways (MDOH),in cooperation with the City of Kalispell, and the Federal Highway Administration, (FHWA) constructed a storm drain system, including a detention basin, an 1980. A water monitoring project was initiated in response to complaints of the persons living in the area, that the basin could adversely affect the ground and surface waters in the local area. The Department of Highways decided that the waters should be monitored to make sure that such was not the case, and so that if there were adverse affects the design could be modified in order to eliminate the problem. The area drained by this storm drain system is approximately 251 acres. About 45% of this area is pervious and 55% is impervious. The detention basin area is in the flood plain of the Flathead-Stillwater River complex. Groundwater elevation in the area is mainly dependent upon the Flathead_Stillwater River stages and is normal between five and fifteen feet below ground level. This area is outside Kalispell city limits and therefore has no common water or sewage systems Monitoring of the surface and groundwaters in the area around the detention basin, known as Days Acres, commenced in December of 1980 and ended in August of 1983. Monitored parameters include; surface water flows, water chemistry and bacterial concentrations, precipitation within the watershed and groundwater elevation. This report summarizes current information to conclude the Kalispell Storm Drain Monitoring Project, and is the final report for FHWA Demonstration Project No. 56-Montana. The primary conclusion based on this work is that no adverse effect is caused by the Kalispell storm drain system.

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Armstrong, L., 1994, Contribution of Heavy Metals to Storm Water from Automotive Disc Brake Pad Wear: Proceedings of the Presentation at the California Stormwater Quality Task Force Meeting, Sacramento, CA, April, Woodward-Clyde Consultants, 38 p.

This report describes the approach and findings of an investigation to evaluate the contribution of heavy metals to storm water by disc brake pad wear. The purpose of the study was to measure metal concentrations in disc brakes, and to estimate the pollutant load contributed by brake pad wear to storm water in Santa clara Valley. This report includes the results of a literature review, laboratory analyses of brake pad composition, and estimates of pollutant loads contributed by brake pads to storm water in the Santa Clara Valley.

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Asplund, R.L. Ferguson, J.F., and Mar, B.W., 1982, Total Suspended Solids in Highway Runoff in Washington State: Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division of ASCE, v. 108, p. 391-404.

During the first year of fulltime operation of ten highway runoff monitoring sites in the State of Washington, a total of 241 storms were sampled with a composite sampling system developed by Clark. Vehicle traffic during the storm was found to be the principle factor influencing the mass of suspended solids in the runoff. During the winter ice conditions a major fraction of solids loadings in runoff can be traced to sand used. A predictive model for total suspended solids loadings was derived as a function of cumulative traffic during storms. Traffic during the dry periods appeared to remove pollutants from the highways and is not significant in predicting pollutant loadings in the State of Washington.

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Baldys, S. III, Hydrologic data for urban stormwater studies in the Dallas - Fort Worth area, Texas, 1992-94.

This report presents precipitation and water quality data from analyses of 210 samples collected at 30 storm-sewer outfall stations in the Dallas-fort Worth area, Texas, during February 1992-November 1994. The data were collected to fulfill requirements mandated by the U.S. Environmental protection agency to the cities of Arlington, Dallas, Fort Worth, Garland, Irving, Mesquite, and Plano and to the Dallas and fort Worth Districts of the Texas Department of Transportation to obtain a National Pollution Discharge elimination System permit. Data were collected at storm sewer outfall sttions in drainage basins classified as singular land use, either residential, commercial, industrial, or highway. Also included are quality assurance/quality-control data for samples collected in conjunction with the stormwater samples.

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Barrett, M.E., Kearney, J.E., McCoy, T.G., Malina, J.F., Charbeneau, R.J., 1996, An Evaluation of the use and Effectiveness of Temporary Sediment Controls: Center for Transportation Research Interm Report FHWA/TX-96/1943-2, 141 p.

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Barrett, M.E., Malina Jr., J.F., and Charbeneau, R.J., 1996, Characterization of Highway Runoff in the Austin, Texas Area: Center for Transportation Research,Texas Department of Transportation Report FHWA/TX-96/1943-4, 38 p./

The water quality of highway runoff in the Austin, Texas, area was determined by monitoring runoff at three locations on MoPac, which represented different daily traffic volumes, surrounding land uses, and highway drainage system types. The highest concentrations of all constituents were measured at the high traffic site. The concentrations at all sites were similar to median values for similar sites compiled in a nationwide study of highway runoff quality. Little adverse impact would be expected for all but the most sensitive receiving waters based on the quantity and quality of highway runoff generated during storms. The water quality of highway runoff is generally similar to that reported for urban runoff, and does not contain appreciably higher concentrations of toxic metals or oil and grease. The impacts of highway runoff alone, like many other nonpoint sources of pollution, generally are not significant when considered singly, but may result in degradation of water quality when combined with other sources, such as urban runoff. The effectiveness of grassy swales for treating highway runoff was evaluated by comparing the runoff at one of the sites before and after passing across a swale. The grassy swale proved effective for reducing the concentrations of most constituents in runoff. The low runoff coefficient resulting from the infiltration of runoff into the swale produced a large reduction (90 percent) in pollutant load discharged. This reduction of runoff volume effectively reduces the impact of constituents whose concentrations are not reduced by the swale. A first flush effect (i.e., higher pollutant concentrations at the beginning of an event) was very evident during selected events, but was generally limited to a small volume. When all monitored events were considered, the overall effect was small or negligible. In considering the potential effectiveness of stormwater treatment systems, constant concentrations for individual storm events should be assumed.

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Barrett, M.E., Malina Jr., J.F., and Charbeneau, R.J., 1996, Effects of Highway Construction and Operation on Water Quality in an Ephemeral Stream in the Austin, Texas Area: Center for Transportation Research,Texas Department of Transportation Report FHWA/TX-96/1943-3, 131 p.

Grab samples collected during the construction of a freeway in southwestern Travis County, Texas, indicate that suspended solids are the most important constituent present in stormwater runoff from the construction corridor. Despite the presence of an extensive system of temporary controls (primarily silt fences), the concentration of suspended solids in Danz Creek increased at least fivefold during and immediately after storm events. Other solids-related parameters, such as turbidity and iron, also increased. Despite the high concentrations of suspended solids, no permanent change in the channel resulting from runoff during construction was obvious. The effects of construction on Danz Creek were temporary, and similar to that reported in the literature for other rivers and streams. Monitoring of a small ephemeral stream allowed documentation of changes in water-quality and quantity resulting from highway runoff that would not be apparent in larger watersheds. The paved surfaces and storm sewer system combined to increase both the total volume and maximum flow rate of the creek. Even small storm events were sufficient to generate runoff below the highway right-of-way. Stormwater runoff from the highway caused increases in suspended solids, oil and grease, and zinc in Danz Creek. These constituents are commonly found in highway runoff. Although the increases were substantial, the resulting water-quality was well within levels appropriate for aquatic life or at concentrations commonly reported for streams during the elevated flows following storm events in undeveloped watersheds. Because of the nature of the surrounding land use, ambient concentrations of many constituents in the creek were higher than those in the runoff from the new highway.

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Barrett, M.E., Malina, J.F., Jr., Charbeneau, R.J., Ward, G.H., 1996, Water quality and quantity impacts of highway construction and operation: Summary and conclusions: Texas Department of Transportation Research Report TX-96/1943-7F, 43 p.

This report summarizes a four-year study on the impacts of highway construction and operation on water quality and quantity of stormwater runoff. Monitoring of water quality in one of the creeks below a highway construction site indicates that even an extensive system of temporary controls is not sufficient to prevent large amounts of suspended sediment from entering receiving waters. Parameters commonly used to characterize geotextile fabrics were found to have little relevance for estimating their sediment removal abilities or hydraulic characteristics under field conditions. The quality of highway runoff was determined by monitoring the quality of storm water runoff from three sites along the MoPac Expressway in Austin, Texas. The quality of the runoff was similar to that reported in other highway studies across the United States. The concentrations of pollutants appeared to be affected by changes in traffic volume, rainfall intensity, and other factors. A computer model was developed that will predict the quality of runoff from operating highways in the Austin, Texas, area. The majority of the variation observed in highway stormwater loading could be explained by causal variables measured during the storm event, the antecedent dry period, and the previous storm event. Structural controls built on the new highway segments to protect the Edwards Aquifer from stormwater runoff have not performed effectively. The hydraulic performance of the vertical sand filters has been uneven, resulting in little apparent improvement in runoff quality. A grassy swale was found to be effective for reducing runoff volumes and pollutant concentrations.

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Barrett, M.E., Zuber, R.D., Collins, E.R., Malina, J.F., Jr., Charbeneau, R.J., Ward, G.M., 1993, A review and evaluation of literature pertaining to the quantity and control of pollution from highway runoff and construction: Texas Department of Transportation Final Report TX-94+1943-1, also available as University of Texas at Austin CRWR 239, 162 p.

Vehicles directly and indirectly contribute much of the pollution found in highway runoff. Vehicles are a source of the metals, chemical oxygen demand, oil and grease, and other materials deposited on highways. Other major sources of contaminants in the runoff include dustfall and dissolved constituents in the rain itself. Rainfall can contribute the majority of ionic contaminants leaving the road surface in runoff and can also wah vehicle derived pollutants out of the atmosphere. Dustfall loadings can be a significant fraction of the loadings in runoff and an important source of highway pollution. The surrounding land use has a major impact on the amount of pollution in dustfall deposited on a highway and the ensuing quality of stormwater runoff. Numerous factors may affect the quality of highway runoff including: traffic volume, precipitation characteristics, roadway surface type, and the nature of the pollutants themselves. No definitive relationship between any of these variables and the concentrations of pollutants in runoff has been reported. For many pollutants, the mass of pollutant in the runoff is more important for estimating the impacts of runoff on receiving water quality than is the instantaneous concentration. The pollutant load is largely a function of the volume of runoff rather than the concentration and is generally predicted more accurately.Traffic volume would seem to be an important factor for predicting runoff quality; however, no clear relationship between traffic and water quality has been reported. The type and size of the receiving body, the potential for dispersion, the size of the catchment area, and the biological diversity of the receiving water ecosystem are just some of the factors which determined the extent and importance highway runoff effects. Bioassay tests of organisms from streams and lakes receiving highway runoff generally have not demonstrated acute toxicity, although very high traffic volumes or other site-specific conditions may produce a toxic response.Concentration of pollutants in the water columns of receiving waters generally only show small changes due to highway runoff.Highways can have a significant impact on groundwater, including changes in water quality in the vadose and saturated zones.Highway runoff effects on groundwater are often spatially limited due to local hydrological conditions as well as sorption processes within and above the aquifer.The precipitation characteristics that may impact the water quality of highway runoff include the number of dry days preceding the event, the intensity of the storm and the storm duration.In addition to the general factors discussed above, the range of pollutant concentrations and loads can also be attributed to site-specific conditions or seasonal variations. Highway construction causes changes in turbidity, suspended solids concentration, and color of receiving waters. The higher suspended solids levels result in reduced diversity and density of fauna in the affected area. The extent and persistence of the changes vary from site to site, but conditions eventually return to pre-construction levels. The effects of highway construction activity may be obscured by other influences such as concurrent commercial development or nearby industry. The control of pollution from highway runoff can be accomplished by both source management and structural controls. Most of the pollutant load is either suspended particulate matter or material absorbed to suspended solids. The most effective control measures reduce the amount of particulates available for transport, or settle and/or filter the particulate material in runoff. Source management includes transportation plans, which can be designed to lower the total vehicle miles traveled, and the implementation of land use plans, which restrict developments that generate high traffic volumes in sensitive areas. Regression equations, simulation models and the statistical method are analytical tools for predicting pollutant loads from highway runoff. The primary advantage of the regression and statistical methods is that both allow a relatively quick, simple and inexpensive screening of stormwater problems. This is a particularly useful in the early stages of the planning process (Driscoll et al., 1990c). The regression methods are simple and include causative mechanisms such as rainfall characteristics, traffic counts, highway lengths, etc. On the other hand, only the mean is predicted for a given set of inputs. Furthermore, regression relationships are notoriously difficult to apply beyond the original data set from which they were derivde. The statistical method requires rainfall statistics (readily available) and know mean concentrations of pollutants in the runoff (somewhat harder) as input variables. The output of a frequency distribution for water quality is tremendously useful, however since assessments of risk and return periods can be made. The method makes many approximations in the interest of obtaining an analytical solution, some of the approximations are important in individual cases. The other difficulty with the method is that it is difficult to determine the effectiveness of control options or changes in the catchment. Simulation models require the most work, especially in terms of calibration and verification data requirements, but also produce the most varied output. The models are most versatile in terms of assessing the effectiveness of control options and runoff changes due to changes in the catchment or other input variables, especially at the design phase. They ar practically useless for predictions of absolute values of concentration and loads, without adequate, site-specific water quality data for calibration and verification.

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Bell, W.E. (1994) Intermittent sand filter BMPs for stormwater quality. Presentedat the Engineers and Surveyors Institute's Stormwater Management Symposium, September 8 1994/

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Bell W.E., 1993. A Catalog of Stormwater Quality Best Management Practices for Ultra-Urban Watersheds, City of Alexandria, Alexandria, VA.

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Bell W.E., and T. Nguyen, 1994. Applying BMP Technologies in Urban and Ultra-Urban Settings, City of Alexandria, VA.

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Bell,W.E., G. Bohr, L.J. Gavan, T. Nguyen, and L. Stokes, 1993. Alexandria Supplement to the Northern Virginia BMP Handbook, City of Alexandria, Department of Transportation and Environmental Services, Alexandria, VA.

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Berman, M.A. (ed.), 1995, Abstracts of Environmental Research in Transportation, 1992-1995: The Center for Transportation and the Environment, North Carolina State University, 160 p.

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Berry, J.G., and Frantz, L., (1995 preprint), Expedited Remedial Action by the Flordia DOT at the Interstate I-595 and Davie Boulevard Corridor Expansion Project: A Case History, from Transportation Research Board 74th Annual Meeting,January 22-28, 1995, Washington D.C., paper no. 950421, 23 p.

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Boyer, L., 1996, Storm water runoff characterization data: California Regional Water Quality Control Board, Caltrans District 6 Technical Report, NPDES No. CA0083640.

This technical report was prepared to fulfill one of the requirements for gathering and submitting storm water runoff characterization data under Caltrans Districts 3,4,6,and 10's joint Municipal NPDES Permit No. CA0083640. Data are presented for three representative storm events: one late in the 1994 - 1995 wet season, the first flush storm event of the 1995 - 1996 wet season, and one mid-season of the 1995-1996 wet season. Historical precipitation data and typical storm event criteria were obtained from the National Climatic Data Center in Asheville, North Carolina, for the Bakersfield Hourly Precipitation Data Station Station (Kern County Meadows Field) for guidance in selecting and reviewing sampled storm events. The sample collection site selected for Caltrans District 6 is in Bakersfield, Kern County, where samples were dipped from the Sterling Road Pump Station storage box on State Route 58 about 5.5 miles (8.9km) east of State Rout 99. Runoff from about one mile of depressed six lane freeway, including almost the full width of the right-of-way (approximately 43 acres) was sampled. This one mile section of freeway is non-landscaped, semi-arid and isolated from all other runoff. The storm water constituent analyses required by 40CFR Part 122.26(d)(2)(iii)(A)(3) were run for all three sampled storm events. Some Oil and Grease, miscellaneous water chemicals, metals and bacteriological constituents were detected. However, no antimony, beryllium, cadmium, selenium, silver, thallium, Organochlorine. Pesticides and PCB's (EPA Method 8080). Volatile Organic Compounds (EPA Method *240), and virtually no Semi-Volatile Organic Compounds (EPA Method 8270) were detected, and there is no apparent need for further analysis for these constituents. For all the constituents detected the highest concentration was found, with few exceptions, in the first flush sample of December 12, 1995, and the lowest concentration was found in the late season sample of the previous wet season. This relative distribution of constituent concentrations among the three sampling events was as would be expected. he relatively low concentrations found in the late season sample of the earlier wet season, in addition to being dissipated by the normal flushing of the season, may have been extraordinarily dissipated because the total precipitation for that particular wet season was 180 percent of recent 30 year normal. First approximations of storm event discharges from one specific mile of State Route 58, which must be considered very rough first estimates, were calculated for each detected constituent for which an analysis was required by 40CFR Part 122.26(d)(2)(iii)(A)(3). These detected constituents, for which and analysis was required, included Oil and Grease, nine miscellaneous constituents, and several metals; The nine miscellaneous constituents were total dissolved solids, nitrite nitrogen, dissolved phosphorus and total phosphorus. The seven metals wee arsenic, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel and zinc. The first approximations of storm event discharges ranged as high as 1900 lb of total suspended solids discharged from one mile (approximately 43 acres) of a depressed six lane freeway and the adjacent right-of-way in a single storm event. These suggested rough first estimates represent only the specific sampling site and may not be reliable extrapolated to any other section of highway. The specific sampling site is a unique mile of non-landscaped, semi-aid freeway, including almost the full width of the right-of-way, which is isolated from all other runoff. As more data is gathered and evaluated over the life of the Permit, more reliable characterization of the quality and quantity of storm water runoff may be developed.

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Boaxall, A.B.A. The Toxicity of Road Runoff Contaminated Sediment to Gammarus Pulex

Road runoff contains a number of potentially toxic substances, these include, metals, oil and tar products. After entering a stream system these contaminants accumulate in the sediment and may influence the structure and functioning of macroinvertebrate communities. This paper describes laboratory sediment toxicity investigations carried out using the freshwater amphipod Gammarus pulex. The objectives were to: (1) Assess the toxicity of road runoff contaminated sediments (2) Identify the major toxicants in road runoff. Sediment was collected from sites upstream and downstream of a motorway drain. The effects of natural and solvent-manipulated sediments on mortality were assessed. Sediment extracts were used in water-spiking investigations to assess the potential toxicity of the sediment organic hydro-carbon content and identify the toxic oil fraction(s). Tissue analysis was carried out for all inves-tigations. The results obtained suggest that downstream sediment is toxic to G. pulex. Manipulation and spiking studies indicate that the observed toxicity is due to the effects of the aromatic hydrocar-bon content of the sediment, he aliphatic fraction had no observable effect. Tissue analysis showed that phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene and pyrene are the major polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons accumulated by G. pulex.

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Buxton, Estimating the Vulnerability to Pesticide Contamination of Drainage Basins used for Public Supply in New Jersey

A statistical analysis of pesticide-application data and drainage-basin characteristics derived from a geographic information system was conducted to develop a numerical vulnerability index for 45 drainage basins used for public surface-water supply in New Jersey. The vulnerability index can be used to estimate the potential of surface-water-supply source to contamination from each of four groups of agricultural pesticides: acetanilides, traizines, organophosphates, and carbamates. The three explanatory variables used in the analysis that best predicted vulnerability were (1) percent of agricultural land in the basin, (2) application rate of pesticide, and (3) potential for pesticide loss from the soil into surface waters. The validity of the index was verified by results of water-quality sampling throughout the crop-growing season in two basins- one with a high vulnerability index and one with a low vulnerability index. The vulnerability index can be used to determine where additional water treatment or analysis of intake water for pesticides may be required.

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California Department of Transportation, 1992, Report on monitoring and reporting procedures: California Control Board, Lahontan Region, per board order 6-89-139-A, 1992/1993 Snow Season, 57 p.

This report addresses issues that the California Regional Water Quality Control Board, Lahontan Region, has regarding water quality within the Lake Tahoe Hydrologic Unit, as is relates to state highway construction and maintenance activities. Based on the data from the 1992/93 winter season,there appears to be a negligible increase in background levels of sodium and chloride concentrations in Griff Creek. Slightly higher levels are attributed to a normal snow season and an increase in deicing salt usage in the urbanized portion of the Griff Creek watershed. There is lower background levels of sodium and chloride at Taylor Creek than recorded in the 1991- 92 year. Pavement runoff samples were collected from the other three sites at the time samples were taken. The lack of runoff is caused by the extreme cold temperatures last winter. The soil samples show typical patterns of sodium and chloride dispersion associated with deicing. As was indicated by Fall 1992 testing, the impact of deicing on he surrounding soil is limited to a distance of about 50 feel from the edge of pavement (EP). Additionally, patterns between Fall samples from 1990, 1991, and 1992 and Spring samples from 1991 and 1992 are similar in that, both display levels which indicate that the ions leach from the soil and do not accumulate appreciably between seasons. Plant samples, like the soil samples, generally show an increase in sodium nd chloride in tissues between Fall and Spring, and the levels decrease as the distance from the EP increases; and over the summer months. Levels appear directly proportional to levels of salt use in a given area. There does not appear to be an increased accumulation of sodium and chloride in the plant tissues sampled from one snow season to the next. Detrimental levels of deicing compounds are not known at this time. Presently Caltrans is using and evaluating a pavement sensing and condition forecasting system (SCAN) on Interstate 80. There are four locations with sensors: Blue Canyon, Cisco Grove, Castle Peak, an Donner Lake Interchange. At each site, the pavement surface temperature, air temperature and chemical factor are used to evaluate whether deicing chemicals should be applied and the required spread rate. This new technology is being used to reduce the amount of deicing chemicals used. Caltrans and the Nevada Department of Transportation (NDOT) are also cooperating in the research and development of a Pavement Sensing and Condition Forecasting System for the Lake Tahoe Basin. The consulting engineering firm of Matrix Management Group is not under contract to prepare and submit the project report for a pavement sensing system in the Tahoe Basin system by February 1995. Last year in Caltrans' report to the Legislature in response to legislation in Chapter 318, Statutes of 1991 (AB 220 - Hauser), concerning the use of deicing chemicals on California State Highways, Caltrans is proposing to prewet sand or salt with a liquid deicer in the Tahoe Basin. Caltrans, in cooperation with Cryotech Deicing Technology (Formally Chevron Chemical Company) is presently evaluating liquid CMA (Calcium magnesium acetate) and C92(potassium acetate). Liquid CMA can be manufactured in a 25 percent solution. Cryotech is presently running tests on a 30 percent solution. Cryotech is recommending a liquid product C92 that is marketed as a liquid runway deicer and which contains no urea and no glycol. This product was introduced to the marketplace in the United States by Chevron Chemical Company in 1990 and approved in 1991. The use of potassium acetate as a runway deicer was initiated in Europe in 1989.

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California Department of Transportation, 1993, Report on monitoring and reporting procedures: California Regional Water Quality Control Board, Lahontan Region, per board order 6-93-62, 1993/1994 Snow Season, 51 p.

This is an annual report covering the 93/94 fiscal year required per Board Order 6-93-62. This report addresses issues that the California Regional Water Quality Control Board, Lahontan Region, has regarding water quality within the Lake Tahoe Hydrologic Unit, as it relates to state highway construction and maintenance activities. Review of data from the 1993-94 winter season background levels of sodium and chloride appears to be consistent with previous years. Pavement runoff samples were collected from three sites (Ward Creek, Taylor Creek, and the upper Truckee River) during 1993-94 winter due to a lack of runoff from the other two sites at the time samples were taken.T he lack of runoff is caused by cold temperatures inherent in winter storm water sampling. Caltrans keeps records on the amount of deicing materials received, spread, and in inventory. Using this information, a record balance is determined for each of our twenty mile segments. The amount of sand and deicing material used in the Tahoe Basin and/or the Lahontan Region is also tracked with this procedure. Caltrans is continuing to prewet sand and salt with a liquid deicer in the Tahoe Basin. Caltrans, in cooperation with Cryotech Deicing Technology (Formerly Cevron Chemical Company), is presently evaluating liquid CF7 (potassium acetate). here were some successful tests and data collected this past year;Caltrans will continue use and testing for this upcoming season. Application procedures and application rates ill be experimented with this year to develop standard procedures. Cryotech is recommending this liquid product that is marketed as a liquid runway deiced which contains no urea and no glycol. This product was introduced to the marketplace in the United States by Chevron Chemical Company in 1990 and approved in 1991. The use of potassium acetate as a runway deicer was initiated in Europe in 1989. Construction commenced in the 93/94 fiscal year on the Tahoe City Maintenance Facility. A storm water runoff collection system was incorporated with the repaving effort. The onsite storm water runoff has been channeled to three concentration points and gravity drained through an oil/grit separator before outfalling into the the Truckee RIver. All the storm water from offsite has been redirected around the maintenance facility.

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California Department of Transportation, 1994, Best Management Practices for Highway Stormwater Runoff: Field Measured Efficiencies, Environmental Engineering Branch, District 04, 76 p.

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California Department of Transportation, 1997, Annual report for Caltrans storm water management program: California Department of Transportation, Caltrans Districts 3,4,6, and 10, NPDES No. CA 0083640./

Caltrans promotes the State's economic vitality and enhances California's quality of life, while protecting the environment and addressing social needs. This report summarizes the status of implementation of the storm water management program for Caltrans Districts 3,4,6 and 10 within the boundaries of the Central Valley NPDES Municipal Permit. Since the Permit was adopted on January 27, 1995, all required submittals have been completed and significant progress has been made in meeting Permit conditions and implementing the Storm Water Management Plan (SWMP). Written polity from the Caltrans Deputy Directory for Project Development clarified responsibility for permanent control features, and the new Water Quality Handbooks addressed provision of a communication channel, from Design to Construction to Maintenance, regarding permanent control features. Caltrans Headquarters Maintenance Program has completed the revision to the applicable Chapter C6 of the Maintenance Manual of Instructions; Consultants under contract with Caltrans Headquarters Environmental Program began extensive training throughout all DIstricts, enhancing the on-going high priority for appropriate training. Inspections of specified culverts related to State highways are nearly completed. Public information and education activities to improve highway cleanliness have continued and expanded. The Model SWPPP, approved by the CV-RWQCB, was introduced at all applicable Maintenance facilities. The vegetation control program was reviewed in each District evaluating reduction in use of herbicides and development of other BMP's for vegetation control. Construction projects are managed according to the State General COnstruction Activity Story Water Permit, the Central Valley NPDES Municipal Permit, the SWMP, Caltrans Standard Specification 7-1.01G, the new Strom Water QUality Handbooks, and the new Standard Special Provisions 7.34 and 7.34.5 for less and more than 5 acres, respectively. Technical reports of the characterization phase of the monitoring program and additional sampling events to date were submitted by each District in May of 1996. Samples collected were analyzed for the entire list of potential pollutants suggested by the Federal Regulations. The long term Monitoring Program submitted in July of 1996 included chemical analysis only for constituents that were detected during the characterization phase. Some aspects of the NPDES program remain unchanged, such as: the Legal Authority, the Annual Report Procedures, and parts of the Maintenance Program that pertain to reporting illicit discharges and inspection of highways and drainage facilities, Other programs have changed dramatically with improvements and development of additional tasks. These programs include the Permanent Control Features, Training, Operation and Maintenance of Highway Structural Controls, and Management of Construction Activities. To the best of Caltrans knowledge, Districts 3,4,6, and 10 are currently in compliance with the terms of the Permit. COmplying with the Clean Water Act and the NPDES Permit, and maintaining a clean environment is part of Caltrans Strategic Plan.

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CE Maguire, Inc., 1985, I-84 Danbury water quality monitoring program: Connecticut Department of Transportation Final Report 34-162, 164, 106 p.

The project involved highway widening, intersection construction and modifications and other general improvements to I-84 at Danbury Connecticut. The project work corridor is located adjacent to and crosses several tributaries to the Saw Mill River and lies a short distance upstream of two private ponds (Haines Pond and Sanfords Pond). In order to determine and document any potential impacts that might have occurred to the surface water within the project area watershed resulting specifically from project construction activities and use, and extensive, long term water quality monitoring program was designed and implemented.

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Center for Research in Water Resources, 1994, CRWR Studies Environmental Impact of Highway Construction: Watermarks, Vol. 30, No. 1. The University of Texas at Austin, p. 1-5, 12.

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Christensen, B.A., Ellis, R.D., Jr., Brown, G.L., 1995, Environmental Best Management Practices for Stormwater Management and Design. University of Florida Depatment of Civil Engineering FL-ER-57-95, 89 p.

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Chui, T.W.D., 1981, Highway Runoff in Washington State: Model Validation and Statistical Analysis (Thesis):Washington State Department of Transportation Report No, WA-RD-39.12, 96 p./

A five year program is being sponsored by the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) to determining the water quality impact of highway runoff. As part of this program, previous researchers have provided an extensive literature review (Horner et al., 1977;Tseng, 1977; Aye, 197; clark 1980; Egan, 1980; and Asplund, 1980)characterized an urban runoff site (Tseng, 1979), developed a continuous composite sampler (Clark, 1980) established criteria and requirements for statewide runoff monitoring sites (Aye, 1980), and identified trends for pollutants found at ten selected sampling sites (Asplund, 1980). This thesis continues the work of Asplund (1980). The results from nine highway runoff sites operated in the second year of sampling (1980-81) verified the pollutant loadings observed by Asplund (1980) in the first year of sampling (1979-80). The major topics in this thesis include: 1. Validating a predictive model proposed by Asplund (1980) with data collected between 1979 and 1981. 2. Establishing a relationship between specific pollutants and total suspended solids (TSS). 3. Comparing runoff samples from sulphur asphalt pavement with conventional highway pavements. 4. Recommending directions for research in the final year of the monitoring program.

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Chui, T.W.D., Mar, B.W., and Horner, R.R., 1982, Pollutant Loading Model for Highway Runoff: Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division of ASCE, v.108, p. 1193-1210.

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Cochrane, H.C., Huszar, P.C., 1983, Increasing the Economic Efficiency and Affordability of Storm Drainage Projects: Colorado Water Resources Research Institute Completion Report Number 126 W88-04708, 58 p.

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Colorado Department of Transportation, Erosion Control and Stormwater Quality Guide, June 1995

Erosion, sedimentation, and water pollution caused by highway construction activities and highway stormwater runoff are of concern to the Colorado Department of Transportation (CDOT). Compliance with recent state and federal laws requires improved erosion control and stormwater quality management during the planning, design, and construction phases of CDOT projects. This guide is intended to aid designers, field and maintenance personnel, consultants, and contractors in designing and implementing measures that will protect water-quality. The guide has been prepared to effectively address erosion and sediment control, and stormwater quality management. A description on how to prepare and implement a sound "Stormwater Management Plan" (SWMP) is also included in this guide. Guidelines are given for the application, use limitations, design, construction and maintenance of Best Management Practices (BMPs) for erosion and sediment control and stormwater quality management. Measures for maintenance practices are also described to assist maintenance crews when planning and executing their work. This guide is expected to be revised and expanded periodically to reflect additional erosion and sediment control, or stormwater quality information. Comments from users of this guide are welcome and can be sent to the following address: Colorado Department of Transportation 4201 East Arkansas Ave., Staff Design Denver, Colorado 80222

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Cooper, S.D., Kratz, K.W., Forrester, G., and Wiseman, S.K., 1996, The impact of runoff from asphaltic products on stream communities in California: Federal Highway Administration, California Department of Transportation FInal Report FHWA/CA/TL-96/24, 113 p.

The effects of runoff from asphalt concrete pavement on stream water chemistry, and macroinvertebrate and fish communities were assessed. Concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and selected heavy metals (Pb, An, Cd) were determined in water samples collected from water draining road surfaces and waters upstream and downstream from the point where water discharged from road surfaces into stream sites. Fish and invertebrate tissues were analyzed for PAHs and heavy metals to determine if bioaccumulation was occurring. The response of fish and macroinvertebrate communities to discharge waters was determined by comparing community indices from sites above and below the point where road runoff entered each stream. Concentrations of all PAH analytes in all steam and road runoff samples were below the detection limit of 0.5 _g/L (ppb). ALthough detectable levels of heavy metals were present in stream and runoff waters there were no significant upstream vs. downstream differences in the concentrations of any heavy metal across all streams. Concentrations of metals were however elevated in runoff waters from the road surfaces relative to upstream samples. Concentrations of all PAH analytes in fish tissues and invertebrate tissues were below detection limit of 0.2 mg/kg (ppm). Concentrations of Pb and Cd in fish tissues were below detection limits (0.5 and 0.05 mg/kg, respectively). Concentrations of Zn in fish tissues were higher above sites where road runoff entered the streams. Concentrations of Zn an Cd in invertebrate tissues were higher than in fish tissue. Levels of Zn, but not Cd, in invertebrate tissue were higher above sites where road runoff entered the streams Fish and invertebrate communities did not differ significantly above and below the site where road runoff entered the stream/ However the abundances of three invertebrate taxa (prosimulium sp. mites, and Chloroperlidae) were significantly lower at downstream relative to upstream locations, and the abundance of an additional taxon, the sonfly Hesperoperla sp. was marginally lower across all streams.

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Cornell Cooperative Extension, 1988, Highway salt management handbook for local Government officials: Albany, Cornell Cooperative Extension Regional Office, 42 p.

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Corbett, R.G., Manner, B.M., 1975, Water quality and potential environmental impact of highway runoff in Ohio: Ohio Department of Transportation, Executive Summary, 2 p.

The purpose of this research was to characterize the inorganic composition of highway runoff and to compare it to runoff from similar sites unaffected by highway operation. Samples were collected monthly or quarterly for five quarters from four highway sites and four paired comparison sites. Rainfall of about 0.05 inches triggered an external switch on a Sigmamotor sampler which collected runoff at 20-minute intervals for up to eight hours.

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Cramer, G.H., Hopkins, W.C., 1981, The effects of elevated highway construction on water quality in Louisiana wetlands: Federal Highway Administration, Louisiana Department of Transportation FHWA/LA-81/148, 45 p.

This study is to determine by physical, chemical, and biological means, the effects of bridged highway construction techniques on water quality in wetlands. Water quality was monitored before, during and after construction. The data shows the increase in pollution that occurred during construction. The areas where construction has been completed have shown gradual improvement toward the preconstruction ambient. The information obtained may be useful in predicting the degree and duration of impacts of future construction projects on wetland environments.

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Cramer, G.H.II, Hopkins, W.C., Jr, 1983, Effects of Dredged Highway Construction on Water Quality in a Louisiana Wetland: Transportation Research Record, no. 896, p. 47-51.

The effects of highway construction on the water quality of wetland areas have been studied only to a limited degree. The apparent signs of water degradation, such as siltation and sedimentation, have been seen many times in similar construction situations. The degree of degradation depends on construction techniques and watershed characteristics. Knowledge of the sedimentation process is necessary to assess the effects on the aquatic ecosystem. Chabrek (1) observed that sedimentation and the resulting turbidity depend of the vegetative cover and the soil type for a particular area. Hopikins (2) conclude that highway construction near water should be watched very closely for silting and sedimentation. The primary objectives of this research were as follows: 1. To provide a baseline or ambient condition for existing water quality. 2. To determine the changes in wetland water quality due to the dredging and construction of an elevated roadway. 3. To determine any residual effect on water quality due to the construction and the time rate change caused by the construction.

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Day, G.E., and Smith, D.R., and Bowers, J., 1981, Runoff and Pollution Abatement Characteristics of Concrete Grid Pavements, Virgina Water Resources Research Center, Bulletin 135, 59 p.

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Dzuray, E.J., Tang, L.J., 1996, Storm water permits for construction activities: A guide for installations: Logistics Management Institute, 124 p.

This guide provides administrative procedures for installation environmental staff regarding their compliance duties associate with construction activities at Army installations. Specifically, it presents the relevant storm water pollution prevention plan for construction activities, a summary of state construction permits, and sample checklists and worksheet.,

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Eck, R.W., Sack, W.A., 1991, Determining feasibility of West Virginia oil and gas field brines as highway deicing agents--Phase III: West Virginia Department of Transportation Final Report WVDOH-RP 76, 178 p.

The Research described in the report represents the third and final phase of a comprehensive research project to determine the feasibility of West Virginia oil and gas field brines as highway deicing agents. Phase III focused on expanding the limited brine quality information collected in Phase I to include brine availability information (both quality and quantity) statewide. A principal objective was to develop a microcomputer-based brine availability database based on existing information and analysis conducted as part of the current effort. Seventy brine samples were analyzed from 23 countries: based on meeting acceptable criteria, 32 of these samples were found to be suitable. A ranking system was developed for brine spreading and brine addition to abrasive materials. Brine quality ad quantity information was included in the database, which is capable of generating a number of different reports. According to the database, almost 568,000 gallons per year of suitable brine were identified. A number of brine usage scenarios were identified and evaluated. The most promising scenario was treating a standard abrasive hopper spreader with brine as a substitute for conventional rock salt.

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English, A., 1995, Evaluation of handling practices for street sweepings in Missoula, Montana: Missoula Valley Water Quality District, 19 p.

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Ferguson, B.K., and Suckling, P.W., 1990, Changing Rainfall Runoff Relationships in the Urbanizing Peachtree Creek Watershed, Atlanta, Georgia: Water Resources Bulletin, v. 26, no. 2, p. 313-322.

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Florida Department of Transportation, 1994. Water Quality Impact Evaluation Manual training, Course No. BT-05-0009, Florida Department of Transportation.

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GKY & Associates, Inc., 1995, Ten year summary report of sediment and phosphorus losses from Upper Holmes run watershed: Farifax County Department of Public Works and the Upper Holmes Run Environmental Monitoring Advisory Committee, Project I00160, Springfield, VA, 46 p.

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Galli, J., 1990, Peat-Sand Filters: A Proposed Stormwater Management Practice for Urbanized Areas: Department of Environmental Programs, Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments, Washington, D.C., 45 p.

Described herein is the proposed use and modification of existing peat-sand filter technology for urban stormwater management control. The proposed made-soil infiltration system combines peat, sand and a grass cover crop to achieve high overall pollutant removal efficiency within a single, relatively compact unit. In addition, the systems also features a small wet pool for pre-treating stormwater runoff. The general compactness and relative freedom of the proposed system from common site contraints ( such as high water table, poor soils, etc. ) make it a leading candidate for many end of p8pe applications. The paper both presents the reader with a comprehensive overview of peat and peat-sand filters, and describes in detail the design features and working of the proposed system.

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Galli, J., 1990, Thermal impacts associated with urbanization and stormwater management best management practices: Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments, Washington, D.C., v. 1, no. 3, 173 p.

Study evaluates thermal and dissolved oxygen (DO) impacts to aquatic life associated with urbanization and various representative stormwater management Best Management Practices (BMP's). Continuous water temperature monitoring and grab sampling was performed at six headwater urban streams and four stormwater BMP sites in the Piedmont portion of Maryland's Anacostia River basin. The streams studied spanned the entire watershed imperviousness spectrum and featured undeveloped, as well as, 60 percent impervious sites. The four representative BMP's monitored included: an infiltration facility, artificial wetland, extended detention dry pond, and a wet pond. In addition, a comprehensive literature review was performed to evaluated potential temperature and DO impacts at major levels of the aquatic food chain. Thermal requirement data for 63 species of fish known or expected to occur in Maryland freshwater streams is included among the biological information presented.

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Galli, J., Dubose, R., 1990, Thermal impacts associated with urbanization and stormwater management best management practices, appendicies: Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments, Washington, D.C., v. 2, no. 3, 126 p.

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Gosz, J.R., 1977, Influence of Road Salting on the Nutrient and Heavy Metal Levels in Stream Water: New Mexico Water Resources Research Institute, Technical Completion Report 3109-68, A-057-NMEX, 18 p./

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Gracie, J.W., and Associates, 1991, Evaluation of mitigation for acid aluminum leachate from a highway fill in Garrett County, Maryland: Federal Highway Administration Research Report, Maryland Department of Transportation Report Final Report FHWA/MD-89/14, 50 p.

The effectiveness of a man-made sphagnum bog in reducing acidity and removing aluminum from an acidic leachate is evaluated. Although some effectiveness is demonstrated, the bog does not retain its ability to function as a result of physical changes due to uncontrolled sediment depositing in it.

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Haan, C.T., and Ward, A.D., 1978, Evaluation of Detention Basins for Controlling Urban Runoff and Sedimantation: Water Resources Research Institute, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Research Report Number 112, 20 p.

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Hall, F.J., 1975, Chloride in Natural Waters of New Hampshire: New Hampshire Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 504, University of New Hampshire, Durham, 25p.

Chloride is a very mobile but chemically inactive constituent in natural waters. For this reason, chloride is useful as a tracer and as an indicator of potential problems although it is not harmful to humans except at fairly high concentrations. The commonly accepted drinking water standard of 250 milligrams per liter (mg/l) is basically a taste threshold, people can drink up to 1000 mg/l with little difficulty. However, other elements such as sodium and heavy metals which may accompany chloride can be harmful at fairly low concentrations. Also, chloride can contribute to corrosion and vegetational kills. Particular advantages for the study of chloride are: 1). Data for many years are likely to be available in the files of various agencies, 2). Little change in analytical techniques, so data from different times should be comparable; 3). Natural sources can generally be identified. Chloride in the dissolved or ionized form is of major concern herein; however, the following conversion factors for the two major salt compounds referred to in the text may be of interest: sodium chloride (weight or concentration) X (0.607) = chloride (weight or concentration) calcium chloride (weight or concentration) X (0.639) = chloride (weight or concentration) The concentration unit used in this report is the milligram per liter (mg/l) except for solid salt where the part per million (ppm) is used. All weights are given in terms of the short ton which is equal to 2,000 pounds. The material on which the present paper is based has come mainly from a research project entitled "Preliminary Investigation of Water Quality of New Hampshire with Emphasis on Chloride and Selected Minor Constituents". The intent herein, however, is to consider the source and significance of chloride in natural waters in a broader sense and to treat New Hampshire as a case history. The general method of approach is to consider regional aspects and to avoid individual or local problems.

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Hanes, R.E., Zelazny, L.W., and Blaser, R.E., 1976, Effects of Deicing Salts on Plant Biota and Soil--Experimental Phase: National Cooperative Highway Research program Report 170 Transportation Research Board.

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Hanes, R.E., Zelazny, L.W., and Blaser, R.E., 1976, Effects of Deicing Salts on Water Quality and Biota--Literature Review and Recommended Research: National Cooperative Highway Research program Report 91, 83 p.

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Hathhorn, W.E., Yonge, D.R., 1996, Assessment of groundwater pollution potential resulting from stormwater infiltration BMP'S: Washington State Department of Transportation Research Report, WA-RD-389.1, 57 p.

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Hathhorn, W.E., Yonge, D.R., 1996, Assessment of groundwater pollution potential resulting from stormwater infiltration BMP'S: Washington State Department of Transportation Technical Report, WA-RD-389.2, 181 p.

Washington State has begun a program to dispose of highway runoff in which a priority has been given to the use of infiltration type technologies (e.g. inflitration basins, dry wells, etc.). Heavy metals are the most prevalent priority pollutant in highway runoff. Through traditionally these heavy metals are thought to possess relatively large retardation factors within the subsurface, previous studies have indicated a possibility of their transport being facilitated through complexation with natural organic matter (NOM). If ignored this form of transport may pose serious errors in the prediction of metal(s) breakthrough times and mass loadings to underlying groundwaters. In addressing this issue, soil columns were tested under loading conditions similar to actual infiltration BMP's to assess the performance of these facilities in removing heavy metals (Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn) from infiltrating water. Experiments were performed in investigating the effects of high and low concentrations of NOM on metals attenuation by field soils. Results show that high concentrations of NOM actually improved soil column performance. The data revealed that metals speciation and background metals present in the soil are important factors to consider, because they can affect expected metals removal rates of soils. They hydraulics of the system played a secondary role to the geochemistry. Results suggest that infiltration can be a viable alternative in disposing of runoff at low metals concentrations. Modifications to guidelines were discussed to improve the long-term performance of infiltration facilities.

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Hayes, B.D., Marhaba, T.F., Agnoli, N.W., and Lackey, D.M., 1996, Evaluation of Highway Runoff Pollution Control Devices: New Jersey Department of Transportation, Final Report 96-007-7620, 133 p./

Information on existing and innovative pollution control technologies for highway runoff has been used to evaluate the potential of each technology in the four physiographic regions characterizing New Jersey. Technologies were evaluated for applicability under the following criteria: performance, cost, maintenance, failure rates, site requirements, contributing watershed drainage area, and regional space availability. In the Coastal Plain, wetlands, dry detention basins, wet detention ponds, grass swales, ad grass filter strips have demonstration the potential to act as effective water quality control devices. Research is necessary on sediment removal by forebays in systems that detain water for treatment. Sediment removal greatly reduces costly maintenance. In the Piedmont region, wetlands, dry detention basins, wet detention ponds, grass swales and grass filter strips are all well suited to treat highway runoff. Compost Stormwater Filters and sand filters may also be suitable in this region. Efficiency, cost, maintenance, and long term effectiveness in regions that experience changing seasons require study before the implementation of the sand and compost-media filters. In the Highlands region, Compost Stormwater Filters and sand filters may be applicable. Grass swales and wetlands may also accomplish water quality goals. Research is again necessary on wetland forebays and both filter systems. In the Valley and Ridge Region, Compost Stormwaters and sand filters meet the necessary requirements for success. Wetlands, grass swales and grass filter strips may also be utilized in the Valley and Ridge region. Research requirements in this region are similar to that necessary in the Highlands. Porous pavement, oil grit separators, and infiltration systems have low potential for use in any of the four physiographic regions due to difficulties associated with performance, maintenance and cost. Not all the information acquired from available literature is directly applicable to this study. Many studies were performed with regions with significantly different soil characteristics and field conditions which suggest the importance of local demonstration projects.

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Hoffman, R.W., Goldman, C.R., Paulson, S. and Winters, G.R., 1981, Aquatic Impacts of Deicing Salts in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, California: Water Resources Bulletin, v. 17, no. 2, p. 280-285.

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Holahan, E., and Maddan, D., 1994, Route 6 Transportation Improvements Project, Dennis to Orleans, Environmental Impact Statement Draft: Federal Highway Adminstration, Massachusetts Highway Department Report FHWA-MA-EIS-94-01-D, 200 p.

This document is a Draft Environmental IMpact Statement (Draft EIS) which has been prepared by the Massachusetts Highway Department (MHS) pursuant to Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) guidelines written under the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). The route 6 project is located in Barnstable County, MAssachusetts, between the towns of Dennis and Orleans on Cape Cod. Barnstable County includes 113,426 hectares (280,307 acres) or 1,121 square kilometers (223 square miles) or land and inland water. The year=round population, estimated at 178,800 in 1888, more than doubles during he summer months due t o Cape Cod's reputation as a shore-resort area. Cape Cod experienced considerable development pressures in the 1980's,and Barnstable Country was one of the state's fastest growing counties with a growth rate of 17.5 percent from 1980 to 1988. The influx of seasonal residents during the 1980's resulted in new residential and commercial development on Cape Cod an has contributed to increased traffic volumes on roadways within the County. Cape Cod is an ecologically unique area which provides many diverse habitats such as salt marshes, freshwater wetlands, and coastal beaches. Drinking water is supplies exclusively by groundwater. THe groundwater body of Cape Cod was designated as a sole source aquifer in 1982. A variety of federal, state and local agencies have purchased tracts of property in an effort to protect the Cape's natural environment and water supply. In the early 1960's, he federal government purchased thousands of hecares/acres of land along 64 kilometers (40 miles) of coastline between Chatam and Provincetown to establish the Cape Cod National Seashore. The Commonwealth of Massachusetts operates Nickerson and Hawksnest Sate Parks, and Cape Cod towns and private conservation organizations have purchased property for preservation purposes. On Cape Cod, Route 6 extends from the Sagamore Bridge at the Cape Cod Canal to Provincetown, a total of 113 kilometers (70 miles). Route 6 bisects Cape Cod and is the pricipal highway serving Barnstable COunty. The Routh 6 project area extends from Routh 134 (Interchange 9) in Dennis to the Orleans/ Eastham Rotary (Inerchange 13), a total lengh of 21 kilometers (12.8 miles), and passes through the towns of Dennis, Harwich, Brewsterm and Orleans. For study purposesm the Route 6 project area encompasses a 0.4 kilometer (one-quarter mile) area on both sides of the Route 6 right-of-way, and a 0.8 kilometer (one-half mile) outside each of the Interchanges 9 - 13 and Freemans Way. Figure 1 depicts the project area.

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Holmes, F.W., and Baker, J.H., 1966, Salt Injury to Trees. II. Sodium and Chloride in Roadside Sugar Maples in Massachesetts: Phytopathology, v. 56, no. 6,p. 633-636.

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Hoos, A.B., Storm-runoff quality and its realtion to land use in the Nashville metropolitan area, Tennessee, in Symposium Proceedings, November 1990: Urban Hydrology, American Water Resources Association, p. 33.

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Horner R.R., 1985, Highway runoff water quality research implementation manual: Volume I Water quality criteria: Washington State Department of Transportation Final Report WA-RD 72.1

The Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT)/University of Washington Highway Runoff Water Quality research project, conducted from 1977 to 1982, produced a number of results of potential use to WSDOT. An effort was required to implement these results in the Department's procedures. One phase of implementation completed previously involved preparation of a guide for assessing the impacts of operating highways on aquatic ecosystems and training WSDOT personnel in its use. The present phase involved formulating decision criteria in a number of water quality problem areas of concern to WSDOT and determining the need for revisions to department documents for consistency with the research results and the new criteria. The results of this phase are presented in a two volume implementation manual and a separate document listing the suggested modifications to four existing WSDOT manuals. Volume I of the implementation manual states the criteria, which were developed for: 1) identification of waters potentially sensitive to impact by operating highways;2) the use of vegetated drainage courses to treat highway runoff;3) the use of retention/detention facilities for highway stormwater drainage; 4) disposal of ditch cleaning spoils;5) the use of woodwaste fills for highway construction;6) highway sanding;7) dilution of highway runoff in a receiving water; 8) highway cleaning; and 9) stream channel modification for highway construction. Volume 2 presents the basis of each criterion listed in Volume 1, including references to the research results and other literature, the reasoning followed, development of equations, etc.

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Horner R.R., 1985, Highway runoff water quality research implementation manual: Volume 2 Basis for water quality criteria: Washington State Department of Transportation Final Report WA-RD 72.2

The Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT)/University of Washington Highway Runoff Water Quality research project, conducted from 1977 to 1982, produced a number of results of potential use to WSDOT. An effort was required to implement these results in the Department's procedures. One phase of implementation completed previously involved preparation of a guide for assessing the impacts of operating highways on aquatic ecosystems and training WSDOT personnel in its use. The present phase involved formulating decision criteria in a number of water quality problem areas of concern to WSDOT and determining the need for revisions to department documents for consistency with the research results and the new criteria. The results of this phase are presented in a two volume implementation manual and a separate document listing the suggested modifications to four existing WSDOT manuals. Volume 1 of the implementation manual states the criteria, which were developed for: 1) identification of waters potentially sensitive to impact by operating highways; 2) the use of vegetated drainage course to treat highway runoff; 3) the use of retention/detention facilities far highway stormwater drainage; 4) disposal of ditch cleaning spoils; 5) the use of woodwaste fills for highway construction; 6) highway sanding; 7) dilution of highway runoff in a receiving water; 8) highway cleaning; and 9) stream channel modification for highway construction. Volume 2 presents the basis of each criterion listed in Volume 1, including references to the research results and other literature, the reasoning followed, development of equations, etc.

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Horner, R.R., 1993, Biofiltration for Storm Runoff Water Quality Control: University of Washington.

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Horner, R.R., Guedry, J., and Kortenhof, M.H., 1990, Highway Construction Site Erosion and Pollution Control Manual, WA-RD 200.2, Washington State Department of Transportation, Olympia, WA., 60 p.

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Horner, R.R., Guedry, J., and Kortenhof, M.H., 1990, Improving the cost effectiveness of highway construction site erosion and pollution control: Washington State Department of Transportation Final Report WA-RD 200.1, 64 p.

A comprehensive two-phase effort was conducted to improve the cost-effectiveness of erosion and pollution control at highway construction sites. This report covers both phases of the research. The initial work included laboratory model-scale testing of sedimentation pond designs and field monitoring of ponds to establish their effectiveness in pollutant removal. The laboratory models demonstrated that the following design features in concert maximize actual water residence time to promote sedimentation: (1) length/width ratio of 5:1; (2) series arrangement of two chambers rather than a single pond of equivalent size and shape; and (3) using a perforated riser outlet. To verify these results in a full-scale application, a sedimentation pond was designed according to the laboratory findings, constructed in a highway right-of-way, and monitored for pollution control performance. Another sedimentation pond without these design features was tested for comparison. A second pond based on the laboratory results was tested later. Monitoring consisted of flow measurement and water runoff composite sampling at pond inlets and outlets. Samples were analyzed for solids, metals, phosphorus, and organic content. Costs were also established for these ponds. Results demonstrated that the ponds designed according to the laboratory findings were both more efficient in pollutant removals and less costly (per unit area served) than the pond to which they were compared. The later phase of the work concentrated most on testing the ability of various mulches, blankets, and chemical products to prevent erosion on test slopes, as well as on the ability of silt fencing to contain erosion from such slopes. Runoff samples were collected at the bottoms of the slopes and analyzed as in the pond studies, and costs were again established. Overall, wood fiber mulch accompanied by grass seeding was the most cost-effective slope covering. This report is issued in conjunction with an erosion and pollution control manual, which is designed to implement the findings in highway construction practice.

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Horner, R.R., and Mar, B.W., 1982, Guide for Water Quality Impact Assessmentof Highway Operations and Maintenance: Department of Civil Engineering Environmental Engineering and Science Program, University of Washington Interim Report No. 14 WA-RD-39.14, 81 p.

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Horner, R.R., and Mar, B.W., 1984, Guide for assessing water-quality impacts of highway operations and maintenance, Transportation Research Record 948, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, NAS, Washingon, D.C., p. 31-40.

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Horner, R.R., and B.W. Mar, 1985, Assessing the Impacts of Operating Highways on Aquatic Ecosystems: Transportation Research Record 1017, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., p. 47-55.

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Howard, J.E., 1981, Characteristics of urban highway runoff (phase 1) interstate 94, St. Paul, Minnesota: FHWA/MN-81/6 (Minnesota Dept. of Transportation, June 1981), 125 p.

This study was undertaken to characterize the physical and chemical characteristics of runoff from an urban highway segment in the Minneapolis - St. Paul metropolitan area. We strove to find out if highway runoff was, and if so to what degree, a potential source of water pollution. Concentrations of pollutants had to be looked at in relation to such things as rainfall amounts, flow rates, time of year, event type and dry days. This study and report is the first in a series and will be followed by several others from other sites in the area. These sites will be differing characteristics in highway geometrics, design, traffic, etc. From this approach, a more thorough understanding of highway runoff should result.

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Howell, R.B., 1978, Water Pollution Aspects of Particles which Collect on Highway Surfaces: Federal Highway Administration, California Department of Transportation Final Report FHWA-CA-78-22, 149 p.

Caltrans studied the nature of constituents in pavement runoff waters at three sites during the winter of 1975 through winter of 1977. Sample sites were located at I-405 Los Angeles, I-680 Walnut Creek, and Route 50 Placerville. Discrete samples were obtained at various times during storm runoff and tested at the Transportation Laboratory in Sacramento. Some 34 different physical, chemical, and biological parameters were measured. This report presents the findings of this study. This information can be used in assessing environmental effects of transportation systems on water-quality.

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Howell, R.B., Nakao, D.I., and Gibley, J.L., 1979, Analysis of Short-term and Long-Term Effects on Water Quality for Selected Highway Projects: Federal Highway Administration, California State Department of Transportation Final Report FHWA/CA/TL-79/17, 245 p.

Research was undertaken at three highway construction projects in California to determine the influence on the water-quality environment. The projects were located on Interstate 5 in northern California at Dunsmuir, Route 395 in the high desert area north of Bishop, and on Interstate 5 in south Sacramento County. Each project involved contact with a live stream or river. Field data were assembled for the preconstructing and construction periods. In addition, the I-5 Dunsmuir and Route 395 Bishop projects included data collection for the postconstruction period. The data show that the water-quality study performed by the districts as part of the environmental assessment process is adequate to describe potential impacts in qualitative terms. Most construction-related impacts were not foreseen in the preconstruction environmental assessment. This report discusses each project study and conclusions.

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Huling, E.L., and Hollocher, T.C., 1972, Groundwater Contamination by Road Salt: Steady State Concentrations in East Central Massachusetts: Science, v. 176, p. 288-290.

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Hunt, H., Baker, T., 1988, Effects of reclaimed water on highway plantings, soils, and irrigation equipment: Federal Highway Administration, California Department of Transportation Final Report FHWA/CA/HM-88/02, 72 p.

The use of reclaimed wastewater for highway landscape plantations was studied. The objectives were to determine reclaimed wastewaters effects on soils, landscape vegetation, and irrigation equipment. Literature and field studies were performed. Five test sites using tertiary treated reclaimed wastewater and two potable water control sites were used. Soil and vegetation and aesthetic analyses were performed. Tertiary treated reclaimed wastewater has no adverse impacts on soils, plants, aesthetics, irrigation equipment, water quality or public health if properly used. A set of guidelines was developed to assist highway workers in determining whether or not reclaimed wastewater should be used in highway projects.

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Hvitved-Jacobson, T., and Yousef, Y.A., 1991, Highway runoff quality, environmental impacts and control, in Hamilton, R.S., and Harrison, R.M., (eds.),Highway Pollution, Studies in Environmental Science 22, Elsevier Science, New York, p. 165-208.

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Iowa Department of Transportation, 1980, Deicing practices in Iowa: An overview of social, economic and environmental implications: Iowa Department of Transportation, 90 p.

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Irish, L.B., Lesso, W.G., Barrett, M.E., Malina, J.F., Charbeneau, R.J., Ward, G.H., 1996, An Evaluation of the Factors Affecting the Quality of Highway Runoff in the Austin, Texas Area: Texas Univ. at Austin. Center for Transportation Research report no. RR-1943-5, Sponsored by Federal Highway Administration FHWA/TX-96/1943-5, 235 p.

The two primary goals of this portion of the research project were (1) to identify the variables that affect the build-up and wash-off of constituents from highways in the Austin, Texas, area, and (2) to develop a water quality model that incorporated these variables. This project marked the first scientific use of a rainfall simulator in conjunction with active traffic. Twenty-one variables were identified for each storm event, and multiple regression analysis was used to determine the relationship of each variable to the quality of highway runoff. The majority of variations observed in highway stormwater loading in the Austin area may be explained by causal variables measured during the rainstorm event, the antecedent dry period, and the previous rainstorm event. An examination of the controlling variables in each model added insight into the applicability of the model and the mitigation of constituent loading. Highway runoff constituents, in general, fall into one of three categories: (1) those constituents, such as suspended solids that are influenced by conditions during the dry period and that may be mitigated by dry period activities (e.g., by street sweeping); (2) those constituents that are most influenced by conditions during the rainfall event and may only be mitigated through the use of runoff controls; and (3) those constituents that are influenced by both periods. The constituents that are significantly affected by conditions during the preceding storm event generally are those constituents that are controlled by the dry period variables.

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Israelsen, C.E., Clyde, C.G., Fletcher, J.E., Israelsen, E.K., Haws, F.W., Packer, P.E., and Farmer, E.E., 1980, Erosion control durring highway construction: Transportation Research Board, National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report No. 221.

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Jones, P.H., Jeffrey, B.A., Walter, P.K., and Hutchon, H., 1986, Environmental Impact of Road Salting--State of the Art: Ontario Ministry of Transport Research Report RR237, 53 p.

This report is a comprehensive resource document concerning the environmental impacts of road salt on ground and surface water quality, soils, terrestrial and aquatic biota, and corrodible objects. This report examines the issue of municipal and provincial liability for deterioration in water quality, property damage, lost income, health and other damages attributed to pollution caused by the application and storage of road salt. Also examined in the issue of municipal and provincial liability for vehicle and pedestrian accidents attributed to inadequate or improper application of de-icing salt. The attitudes of the courts in these issues are also reported.

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Katz, B.G., Bricker, O.P., Kennedy, M.M., 1985, Geochemical Mass-Balance Relationships for Selected Ions in Precipitation and Stream Water, Catoctin Mountains Maryland: American Journal of Science, v. 285, p. 931-962.

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Kelly, W.E., and Urish, D.W., 1981, A Study of the Effects of Salt Storage Practices on Surface and Groundwater Quality in Rhode Island: Department of Transportation, Report FHWA-RI-RD-80-01, 54 p.

The results of a fifteen month study of the effects of salt storage practice indicate significant increases in sodium and chloride are occurring in adjacent ground and surface water resources. Based on detailed monitoring of four sites, groundwater is most severely impacted due to its limited dilution capacity. Data on sodium, chlorides, and specific conductance are used to quantify the impacts. The long-term solution is to eliminate or minimize salt runoff by utilizing permanent covered storage at all sites. Recommendations are made to improve surface drainage, to divert runoff away from sensitive areas, and to upgrade existing brine tank storage facilities.

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Kobriger, N.P., Dupuis, T.V., Kreutzberger, W.A., Stearns, F., Guntenspergen, G., and Keough, J.R., 1983, Guidelines for the Management of Highway Runoff on Wetlands: National Cooperative Highway Research Pogram Report 264, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 166 p.

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Kobriger, N.P., Dupuis, T.V., Kreutzberger, W.A., Stearns, F., Guntenspergen, G., and Keough, J.R., 1984, Effects of Highway Runoff on Wetlands: EnviroEnergy Technology Center, University of Wisconsin Final Report 25-1, 353 p.

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Konrad, C.P., 1995, An examination of stormwater detention and infiltration at the scale of an individual residence in the Sammamish plateau region of King County, WA.: Washington State Department of Ecology, Water Resources SER/TR-148, 89 p.

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Kuzia, E.J., and Black, J.J., 1985, Investigation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon discharges to water in the vicinity of Buffalo, New York: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Final Report EPA-905/4-85-002, 144 p.

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Laenen, A., 1995, Willamette river water quality study: Sediment transport in the main stem and major tributaries: Oregon Water Resources Research Institute-Current Research Report, v. 1, no. 1, 4 p.

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Landry, M.S., and Thurow, T.L., 1997, Function and Design of Vegetation Filter Strips: An Annotated Bibliography. Texas State Soil and Water Conservation Board Bulletin No. 97-1, 67 p.

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Lechter, V., Saridis, Y., and Lu, J., 1992, Design of Leaching Basins: Engineering Research and Development Bureau New York State Department of Transportation Research Report 157, Federal Highway Report FHWA/NY/RR-92/157, 37 p.

Recharge basins, which are shallow and require large surface areas, have long been used on Long Island for conversion of storm water runoff to groundwater. As an alternative, leaching basins are of increasing interest -- these are underground covered pits only 5 ft to 10 ft wide and 10 to 20 ft deep. Although more of them may be needed in a given watershed, problems of safety and litter associated with recharge basins are avoided, and they do not require extensive land surface, particularly important in highly developed regions. This study was initiated to develop a design procedure to determine the radius of influence of leaching basins. Various groundwater flow models are discussed, and from the resulting tables radii for 10- and 25-year storms have been determined for the four types of leaching basin currently in use on Long Island. Problems in basin maintenance are also considered.

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Lindeman, W., 1995, Environmental Research Implementation Notebook: Florida Department of Transportation Environmental Managemnet Office, 97p.

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Little, L.M., Horner, R.R., and Mar, B.W., 1983, Assessment of pollutants loadings and concentrations in highway stormwater runoff: Washington State Department of Transportation Highway Runoff Water Quality Research Project, FHWA WA-RD-39.12.1, 38 p.

This report presents the final form of the Washington State highway runoff pollutant loading model, incorporating data from the five years of study. It also features a probabilistic analysis of concentration and loading data designed to express the chance of exceeding specific values in a given case. Other topics include further assessment of the toxicity of highway runoff and its causes and mitigation.

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Long, D.C., and Baldwin, J.S., 1980, Snow and Ice Removal From Pavement Using Stored Earth Energy, FHWA-TS-80-227, West Virginia Department of Highways, Charleston, West Virginia, 1 p.

This report documents the design, construction and three year evaluation of an experimental project in which heat pipes were utilized to transfer the natural stored energy of the earth to the pavement to control snow and ice accumulations. Also included is a discussion on the economic feasibility of utilizing such systems as well as graphical representations of temperature profiles derived from thermocouple data collected at the project site.

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Lopes, T.J., Phillips, J.V., and Fossum, K.D., 1993, Arizona Water 2000: Selected Physical,Chemical, and Microbial Characteristics of Storm Water, Maricopa County, Arizona, Arizona Hydrological Society, p. 315-329.

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Lorant, F.I., 1992, Effect of piped median vs. open ditch drainage on stormwater quality: Ontario Ministry of Transportation Final Report MAT-92-04, 34 p./

The objective of the program on the effects of piped median versus open ditch drainage on stormwater quality was to prepare a literature review and to conduct a subsequent field study. In the U.S. and Europe, a substantial amount of research has been done regarding receiving water pollution due to motor vehicle operations. Many of these studies indicate that highway run-off can represent a non-point source of pollution, which may have a significant impact on critical receiving waters. A detailed literature review was prepared in a separate volume (unpublished), entitled "Highway Runoff Water Quality, Literature Review" March 1990. The second part of the project involved field monitoring to study the relative effects of grassed and impervious surface channels on highway runoff quality. Two sites were selected along Highway 401, a grassed median section near the Dorchester Swamp and a paved section over Putnam Road. Eight composite samples were collected and analyzed, however, the grassed channel width was reduced during the early part of the monitoring program by urgent, safety-related road improvement works. When compared to the MOE water quality objectives for the protection of aquatic habitat, the copper, iron, zinc, ammonia and total phosphorus average concentrations exceeded the objectives. There was insufficient data collected at the undisturbed grassed median to determine the effects of a grassed channel on the quality of runoff./

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Lorant, F.I., 1992, Highway runoff water quality literature review: Ontario Ministry of Transportation MAT-92-13, 128 p.

The Ontario Ministry of Transportation (MTO) initiated a literature review in order to update its knowledge of stormwater quality, particularly that associated with highways in various countries in Europe. The considerable material reviewed is grouped under two headings: (1) the quality of stormwater as it leaves an operating highway; and (2) the degree of improvement as this water enters and flows in the receiving watercourse. Several studies in North America and Germany have reported that levels of pollutants in the runoff generated from operating highways are normally low. One U.S. Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) study concluded that rural highways having less than 30,000 vehicles per day no not make a significant impact on most receiving waters. Guidelines produced by the FHWA indicate that highway runoff is unlikely to have adverse effects on receiving waters when: (1) no public water supply is involved in the receiving waters; (2) the highway has less than 30,000 vehicles as the average daily traffic; (3) the highway runoff is conveyed by overland flow in an unlined or grassed channel, at least over a distance of 60 m prior to discharging into the receiving stream; or (4) the dilution ratio of the highway runoff to the receiving stream is at least 100 to 1. Water quality effects from highway runoff have not been covered adequately in the literature. The closest references to highway runoff effects are contained in the urban stormwater literature. Although the nature and concentration of pollutants may be similar in urban and in highway runoff, the relative loadings are often much higher in urban runoff. Pollutants from operating highways have the greatest effects on aquatic environments when traffic volumes are very high, i.e., greater than 185,000 vehicles per day. The control of sediment to which the most serious pollutants become absorbed during transport may be the most effective strategy to mitigate stormwater quality impacts.

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Mar, B.W., Horner, R.R., and Ferguson, J.F., Washington State Highway Runoff Water-Quality Study, 1977-1982

A highway stormwater runoff pollutant loading model has been developed based on results from composite sampling of approximately 600 storms at nine locations in the State of Washington over five years. The model expresses total suspended solids (TSS) loading in proportion to the product of highway segment length, average runoff coefficient, and vehicles traveling during storm periods. It was demonstrated that loadings of contaminants such as chemical oxygen demand, nutrients and trace metals could be estimated from TSS loadings using ratios derived from the data. The model described was developed and validated for assessing total loadings over a time span encompassing a number of storms (monthly or annually). To predict pollutant concentrations and loadings in runoff from a given storm, cumulative distributions were plotted and analyzed to determine the probability of exceeding specific concentration and loading values in a given case. Bioassay studies using highway runoff indicated toxicity to aquatic life when elevated metals deposition from high traffic volumes (in excess of 10,000 - 20,000 vehicles per day) or high metals concentrations in rainfall caused runoff concentrations and the consequent toxic effects. The major product of this research is a guide to assessing and mitigating the impacts of highway runoff to receiving waters.

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Marshall Macklin Monaghan Limited, 1991, Stormwater quality best management practices: Environmental Sciences & Standards /Water Resources, Ontario Ministry of the Environment, ISBN 0-7729-8478-6, 177 p.

Concerns regarding the quality of stormwater runoff and its impacts on aquatic resources have been increasing for many years throughout North America. It is now generally recognized that stormwater must be addressed during the planning, design, and construction of our communities, in a different manner than in the past. In order to achieve development forms which meet our current needs while preserving and maintaining our natural resources for the future, it will be necessary to plan our actions in ways which recognize such things as water quality and quantity, linkages between surface and groundwater, and dependencies between physical and biological resources. Processes and methodologies for this new type of approach are evolving rapidly in the Province. Terms such as "watershed planning", "ecosystem approach", "sustainable development", no net loss of habitat", and "enhancement", are encountered in virtually every undertaking. IN efforts to turn these guiding principles into actual applications, environmental planners, engineers, and scientists will have to make use of tools including source controls, conservation, land use control, treatment, and structural Best Management Practices. 9;It is this latter class of tools which is the focus of this report. Different sections of the report address the planning, selection, design basis, implementation and costs of structural Best Management Practices (BMPs). Structural BMPs refer to ponds, infiltration techniques, wetlands, and underground storage facilities, which are implemented as part of a development or as part of a remedial program to correct existing problems. The sue of these tools, in conjunction with other options such as housekeeping practices, land use restrictions or limitations, conservation and enhancement programs, and source controls of pollutants will result in future development forms which provide for human needs while protecting the natural environment.

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Martin, E.H., and Smoot, J.L., Assimilative Capabilities of Retention Ponds, FHWA/DOT/BMR-303-86

The efficieny of a detention pond and wetlands temporary storage system to reduce const- ituents loads in urban runoff was determined. The reduction efficiencies for 22 constituents, including the dissolved, suspended and total phases of many of the con- stituents were investigated. A new method not previously discussed in technical literature was developed to determine the efficiency of a temporary storage system unit such as a detention pond or wetlands. The method provides an efficiency, called the regression efficiency, determined by a regression constrained to zero. The regression efficiency of the treatment unit is defined as unity minus the regression slope. The system (pond and wetlands) achieved appreciable reductions of loads for most constituents. Significant positive regression efficiencies for the system were found for all constituents except the nutrients dissolved nitrate and dissolved orthophosphate. Systems regression efficiencis were 55 percent for total solids, 83 percent for total lead, 70 percent for total zinc, 36 percent for total nitrogen, and 43 percent for total phosphorus.

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Massachusetts Highway Department, Standard Operating Procedures, Salt Contamination Complaint Policy, S.O.P. No. RMS 06-01-1-000, 9p.

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Massachusetts Highway Department, Route 6 Transportation Improvements Project - Dennis to Orleans, FHWA-MA-EIS-94-01-D

This document is a Draft Environmental Impact Statement (Draft EIS) which has been prepared by the Massachusetts Highway Department (MHD) pursuant to Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) guidelines written under the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). The Route 6 project is located in Barnstable County, Massachusetts, between the towns of Dennis and Orleans on Cape Cod. Barnstable County includes 113,436 hectares (280,307 acres) or 1,121 square kilometers (433 square miles) of land and inland water. The year-round population, estimated at 178,800 in 1988, more than doubles during the summer months due to Cape Cod's reputation as a shore-resort area. Cape Cod experienced considerable development pressures in the 1980s, and Barnstable County was one of the state's fastest growing counties with a growth rate of 17.5 percent from 1980 to 1988. The influx of seasonal residents during the 1980s resulted in new residential and commerical development on Cape Cod and has contributed to increased traffic volumes on roadways within the County. Cape Cod is an ecologically unique area which provides many diverse habitats such as salt marshes, freshwater wetlands, and coastal beaches. Drinking water is supplied exclusively by groundwater. The groundwater body of Cape Cod was designated as a sole source aquifer in 1982. A variety of federal, state, and local agencies have purchased tracts of property in an effort to protect the Cape's natural environment and water supply. In the early 1960s, the federal government purchased thousands of hectares/ acres of land along 64 kilometers (40 miles) of coastline between Chatam and Provincetown to establish the Cape Cod National Seashore. The Commonwealth of Massachusetss operates Nickerson and Hawksnet State Parks, and Cape Cod towns and private conservation organizations have purchased property for preservation purposes. On Cape Cod, Route 6 extends from the Sagamore Bridge at the Cape Cod Canal to Provincetown, a total of 113 kilometers (70 miles). Route 6 bisects Cape Cod and is the principal highway serving Barnstable County. The Route 6 project area extends from Route 134 (Interchange 9) in Dennis to the Orleans/Eastham Rotary (Interchange 13), a total length of 21 kilometers (12.8 miles), and passes through the towns of Dennis, Harwich, Brewster, and Orleans. For study purposes, the Route 6 project area encompasses a 0.4 kilometer (one-quarter mile) area on both sides of the Route 6 right- of-way, and 0.8 kilometer (one-half mile) outside each of the Interchanges 9-13 and Freemans Way.

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McCallan, R.M., Hotchkiss, R.H., 1996, Hydraulic efficiency of highway stormwater inlets: Nebraska Department of Roads Final Report NE-DOR-R-96-1, 140 p.

This study evaluates the efficiency of stormwater inlets used by the Nebraska Department of Roads (NDOR) and includes a literature review of bicycle safety for inlets. The inlets studied include the 'Nebraska Flume' inlet, the slotted bane inlet and the NDOR standard 72-inch curb opening inlet. The tests on the 'Nebraska Flume' inlet included modifications to the design. A full scale model, with the ability to change both the longitudinal and cross slopes, of an eight foot shoulder lane was used to conduct the tests. The longitudinal and cross slopes tested were one, three and five percent, and two, four and sex percent respectively. The report describes the hydraulic performance of the 'Nebraska Flume' inlet, the slotted vane inlet and the NDOR standard 72-inch curb opening inlet. The grates tested with the 'Nebraska Flume' inlet consisted of open hole, Deeter model 2064, and Nebraska 5-bar. The hydraulic performance of the inlets is presented in terms of inlet efficiency. A series of inlet efficiency curves document the performance of the different inlets at different slope configurations. The study resulted in these conclusions. First, the 'Nebraska flume' inlet, performed best with the Nebraska 5-bar grate. Second, the 'Nebraska Flume' inlet performed best when modified by moving the outer curb in to the edge of the inlet opening, except for slope combinations of one percent longitudinal slope with cross slopes of four percent or lower. Finally, he slotted vane inlet performed best at the lower cross slopes, while the 'Nebraska Flume' and the standard 72-inch opening perform better at the higher cross slopes. Methods for design were developed to aid in inlet planning. For the 'Nebraska Flume' inlet and the slotted vane inlet, the procedure involved the use of design charts. To help in the design of the standard 72-inch curb opening inlet, the procedure involved the use of design charts. To help in the design of the standard 72-inch curb opening inlet, the procedure involves and efficiency equation.

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McGovern, D.L., 1993, General permit authorization to discharge storm water associated with a construction activity under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System/State Disposal System Permit Program: Minnesota Pollution Control Agency MN R100000, 21 p.

In compliance with the provisions of the Clean Water Act, as amended, (33 U.S.C. 1251 et sea.; hereinafter the "Act"), 40 CFR 122,123 and 124 as amended, et seq.; Minnesota Statutes Chapters 115 and 116 as amended, and Minnesota Rules Chapter 7001: This permit establishes conditions for discharging storm water to waters of the state from construction activities which disturb five or more acres of total land area. Coverage under this permit will remain in effect until construction is complete, the site has undergone final stabilization, all maintenance activities required in Part I.E. have been completed, and the Permittee has submitted a Notice of Termination, regardless of the below expiration date.

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Medeiros, C., and Coler, R.A., 1982, A Laboratory/Field Investigation into the Biological Effects of Urban Runoff: Water Resources Research Center, University of Massachusetts at Amherst, 57 p.

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McKenzie, D.J., and Irwin, G.A., Water-Quality Assessment of Stormwater Runoff From a Heavily Used Urban Highway Bridge in Miami, Florida, FHWA/FL/BMR-84-270.

Runoff from a 1.43-acre bridge section of Interstate 95 in Miami, Florida, was monitored during five storms to estimate loads of selected water-quality parameters washed from this heavily traveled roadway. The monitoring was conducted periodically from 1979 to May 1981 in cooperation with the Florida Department of Transportation for the specific purpose of quantifying the concentrations and loads of selected water- quality parameters in urban-roadway runoff. Automated instrumentation was used during each of the five storms to collect periodic samples of bridge runoff and to measure continuously the storm discharge from the bridge surface and the local rainfall. For most target parameters, 6 to 11 samples were collected for anlayses during each event. Results of these analyses generally indicated that the parameter concentrations in the stormwater runoff and the parameter load magnitudes were quite variable among the five storms, although both were similar to the levels reported for numerous other roadway sites. Storm intensity influenced the rate of loading, but parameter concentration was the dominant variable controlling the overall magnitude of loading.

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Meier, W.R., Jr., and Elnicky, E., 1989, Second Annual Monitoring Report Porous Pavement for the Control of Highway Runoff: Arizona Department of Transportation HPR-PL-1(31) Item 227, 55 p.

A three-lane by 3500 linear feet portion of an urban highway was constructed of porous pavement. This design resulted from a research study of the use of porous pavement to provide highway drainage. It was determined that after two years of observation, the porous pavement is working as designed. Although the rainfall during the year was slightly less than the typical annual rainfall, there was no storms approaching the ten-year design storms to obtain a full test of the capacity of the system. Pavement deformation as measured in wheel tracks from a straight edge and from pavement elevations measured at the completion of construction are not severe or abnormal. Slight deformation in control sections of conventional pavement occurred immediately after opening to traffic and have undergone no significant change since then. Deformation in the experimental porous pavement is slightly more and occurred over a somewhat longer period than for the control sections. Measurements indicate an increase in moisture content of the subgrade at one location in the porous pavement, but little or no change at the other locations monitored. The increase occurred during the first four or five months after the pavement was put into pavement are excellent at this time.

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Meier, W.R., Elnicky, E.J., and Newlin, C.W., 1992, Design of a Porous Pavement to Control Highway Runoff: Transportation Research Board FHWA/AZ-89/227, 40 p.

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Minnesota Department of Transportation, 1980, Characteristics of urban freeway runoff (Phase II): Minnesota Department of Transportation, Environmental Services Section, 33 p.

This is the second phase of a five-phase study documenting the physical and chemical characteristics of freeway runoff. The intention of this report is to document the site characteristics methods used to collect data, to provide a brief description of the data collected for this second phase. The object of the five phase study is to provide data for a future report that will: a) summarize and compare that data from the five runoff sites b) develop a runoff pollutant prediction model and c) assess the environmental significance of freeway runoff

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Minnesota Department of Transportation, 1988, Characteristics of urban freeway runoff (Phase III): Minnesota Department of Transportation, Environmental Services Section, Environmental Engineering Unit, Water Quality Group, 43 p.

This the third phase of a five-phase study documenting the physical and chemical characteristics of freeway runoff. The intention of this report is to document the site characteristics, methods used to collect data, and provide a brief description of the data collected for this third phase. The object of the five phase study is to provide data for a future report that will: a) summarize and compare the data from the five runoff sites, b) develop a runoff pollutant prediction model, and c) assess the environmental significance of freeway runoff, The monitoring program began on this site on September 12, 1970 and ended with an even on November 26, 1981, However, beginning on July 6, 1981 a major pavement rehabilitation project was in progress on I-694 that from time to time included the drainage area of this site. The data from July 6,1981 through November 26, 1981 has been excluded from this report. (It will be dealt with as a separated project in a following report). The report period of the study spanned 1 year and 9 1/2 months. The report period had 28 monitored events of runoff. There were 18 rain events, 6 snow events, and 4 mixed events.

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Missoula City-County Heath Department, 1997, Storm and Groundwater Quality Impacts of Chemical Deicer Usage in Missoula, Montana, State Report prepared for the Montana Department of Environmental Quality, July, 1997, 30 p.

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Mitsch, W.J. 1990, Wetlands for the Control of Nonpoint Source Pollution: Preliminary Feasibility Study for Swan Creek Watershed of Northwestern Ohio: Ohio Environmental Protection Agency, 92 p.

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Moe, R.D., Bullin, J.A., and Lougheed, M.J., 1982, Atmospheric Particulate Analysis and Impact of Highway Runoff on Water Quality in Texas: Texas Department of Transportation FHWA/TX-82/30+191-1F, 49 p.

This experiment was designed to monitor water quality, air quality, traffic, and meteorology along an elevated, impervious section of interstate highway in Dallas, Texas, with a closed storm sewer system. Volume of flow, rainfall, and pollutants discharged were monitored automatically during rainstorms. Particulate was sampled at three locations and subjected to X-ray fluorescent analysis. Particulate levels varied substantially and appeared to decrease sharply after rainshowers. All elements sampled followed the same general pattern of variation with some individual differences. It was difficult to establish a relationship between particulate levels and wind direction. Precipitation seemed to be the most significant factor with a rapid buildup in particulate levels following shower activity.

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Morgan, J., Moye, T., Smeltzer, E., and Garrison, V., 1984, Lake Morey Diagnostic-Feasibility Study, Final Report-1984, Vermont Dept. Of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering, Report MS-1-484-2, 110 p.

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Moser, R., 1996, Efficiency of sediment basins: Analysis of the sediment basins constructed as part of the straight creek erosion control project:Colorado Department of Transportation Final Report CDOT-DTD-SDHYD-R-96-2, 80 p.

Erosion, sedimentation, and water pollution caused by runoff from the highway system are of concern to the Colorado Department of Transportation (CDOT). Compliance with federal and state water quality regulatory requirements along with a desire to minimize adverse environmental impacts have led to the need to control highway runoff. A variety of practices can be used to improve the quality of highway runoff and thereby reduce potential impacts to receiving waters. One such measure that can be constructed is a sediment basin. The Straight Creek Erosion Control Project, completed by CDOT in the summer of 1994, included the construction of eleven sediment basins between the "toe" of the I-70 fill slope and Straight Creek. These basins were constructed to reduce highway runoff sediment loadings into Straight Creek. This report provides information about the amount of material captured by the basins and their efficiency in removing sediment from the highway runoff. It is hoped that the report findings will help in future decisions on whether or not sediment basin construction is warranted and what sediment removal efficiency can be anticipated.

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Moxness, K.L., 1986, Characteristics of urban freeway runoff: Federal Highway Administration, Minnesota Department of Transportation Final Report FHWA-MN-86-02, 207 p.

This report presents the chemical and physical data from the monitoring of rainfall and snowmelt runoff during the period July), 1982 through June 30, 1983. The presentation is by tables, graphs, text, lists, and appendices. There are well developed tables for dozens of chemical and physical parameters in the text, but also, raw data presentations in the Appendix. The report is based on the monitoring of runoff from a new, depressed, urban 10 lane interstate highway segment located between two crest curves in Minneapolis, MN, USA. The report presents new monitoring techniques and specially designed facilities. A number of trends, indexes, ratios, categories, combinations, and other objective analysis devices are developed for the dozens of chemical and physical parameters that include nutrients, solids, and metal among others. Some conclusions drawn are that event type, season, traffic between precipitation events, traffic densities, flow rate, accumulated rain and dry days have a determining effect on levels of median concentration. There are correlation coefficients over 9000 for a large number of constituent pairs. Mass loadings from several chemical constituents show their highest values in late winter to early spring.

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Newberry, G.P., Yonge, D.R., 1996, Retardation of Heavy Metals in StormwaterRunoff by Highway Grass Strips: Washington State Dept. of Transportation Research Report WA-RD-404.1, 81 p.

Investigations regarding the introduction of contaminants to the aquatic environment through highway runoff began in the late 1970's. Interest in this area of study has continued to increase, particularly in the area of design, operation, and effectiveness of contaminant mitigation devices. Contaminants of concern in highway runoff include metals, organics, and suspended solids. To determine the effectiveness of these grass strips as retention mechanism, a full-scale grass model was constructed that allowed control of slope and stormwater contaminant feed rate. The model was 1.2 m wide (perpendicular to flow path) and contained a 3m grass section. A stimulated highway stormwater was developed that contained sediment, lead, cadmium, copper, and zinc, The research approach was divided into three main areas: (i) determination of the hydraulic retention time for various slope and flow combinations (ii) estimation of retention times for selected metals, (iii) analysis of the fate of the metal contaminants with regard to spatial location as well as plant uptake. Hydraulic detention time over a range of slope/flow combinations was estimated using a bromide tracer technique. The largest portion of metals were retained within the initial 1 m of the grass strip and 0.4 inches of depth. These analytical findings were supported by visual observations that indicated that the stormwater sediment was retained in the upper 1 m of the grass strip. Overall metal detention was estimated by mass balance and it was determined that 84% of zinc, 93% of lead and ;99% of cadmium and copper applied to the grass strip was retained. Over the duration of nine individual storm events, no significant metal breakthrough was observed at the test strip outlet or in the first set of monitoring wells placed 0.6 m from the stormwater inlet distribution device.

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New Mexico State Highway and Transportation Department, 1997, National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System Handbook: New Mexico State Highway and Transportation Department, 12 p.

Construction and urbanization are two major causes of water pollution. Disturbance of the soil resulting from construction can accelerate the erosion process, increase the sediment load in runoff, and adversely affect the receiving waters. In addition, increased impermeable surface due to urbanization can alter the quantity and quality of storm water runoff by facilitating the transportation of runoff and accumulated sediments from paved surfaces. The water-related impacts of construction and urbanization can include habitat alteration, higher peak flows and flooding, erosion, and increased pollution loads such as sediment, metals, nutrients, bacteria, etc. Since the NMSHTD is involved in highway and bridge construction, the Department is responsible to take measures to minimize and/or prevent storm water pollution. The NPDES General Permit requires the implementation or erosion and sediment control measures by a Pollution Prevention Plan (PPP) to reduce pollutants in storm water discharges associated with industrial activity from construction sites.Erosion of disturbed soils on construction sites can be prevented in many cases. When it is not possible to prevent the erosion, then the sediment can be trapped on site.

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North Central Texas Council of Governments, (1995 in press), A Statistical Analysis of TxDOT Highway Stormwater Runoff: Comparisons with Existing North Central Texas Municipal Strom Water Database, 18 p.

Controlling storm water pollution in urban areas and from industrial activity runoff is viewed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency as a key to maintaining and improving the quality of the Nation's waterways. Historical water quality summaries suggested that that many waters were being impacted by storm water runoff. In the National Water Quality Inventory, 1992 Report to Congress USEPA reported that about one third of US waterways are impaired by storm water discharges. water pollution generated during strom events, whether it is referred to as urban storm water or nonpoint source pollution, is now a regulatory focus. In November, 1990, after almost 20 years, the USEPA published final regulations requiring storm water permits. The final rule targets large municipalities and urban areas, plus eleven categories of industry. Large municipalities were required to commence two part strom water permit applications, and to commit to implement controls to he "maximum extent practicable " or "MEP". Selected industrial activities, including construction projects, s well as certain municipal activities classified as industrial in nature, were also required to apply for storm water permits within the framework of the Nationwide Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) structure that USEPA uses for point source discharges.

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Nottingham, D., Schoettle, S., Gunderson, W., 1983, Costs to the Public Due to the Use of Corrosive Deicing Chemicals and a Comparison to Alternate Winter Road Maintenance Procedures: Dept. of Transportation and Public Facilities, Fairbanks, Research Section, and Department of Transportation, Washington, DC. DOT-I-87-06, 43 p.

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Oberts, G.L., 1986, Pollutants Associated with Sand and Salt Applied to Roads in Minnesota: Water Resources Bulletin, v. 22, no. 3, p. 479-483.

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Oberts, G.L., 1994, Influence of Snowmelt Dynamics on Stormwater Runoff Quality: Watershed Protection Techniques, v. 1, no. 2, p. 55-62.

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Oberts, G.L., Wotzka, P.J., and Hartsoe, J.A., 1989, The Water Quality Performance of Select Urban Runoff Treatment Systems, Part I of a Report to the Legislative Commission on Minnesota Resources, 112 p.

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Ohio Department of Transportation, 1996, NPDES Stormwater Monitoring - Snow Sampling March 29 and April 11: Ohio Department of Transportation Progress Report, 2 p.

Samples of accumulated snow were collected at 4 roadside locations near Mt. Hood on March 29 and April 11, 1996. Sampling was conducted the previous year at the same sites. Spring snowmelt on Mt. Hood produces a significant amount of surface runoff. Pollutants may become attached to the snow which accumulates along the sides of the roads, posing a threat to sensitive receiving waters. The purpose of the sampling was to determine the overall quality of the snowmelt runoff.

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Pennsylvania Department of Transportation, IRM Antiskid Material Study, PennDOT, 1994

The Pennsylvania Department of Transportation has conducted a limited study to provide preliminary information regarding metals content in surface soils, sediments, and surface waters adjacent to roadways following the use of Iron Rich Material (IRM) an antiskid on these roads. This study also included a very limited air monitoring study. The IRM is a slag-like material primarily composed of iron, with smaller (but significant) amounts of chromium, copper, lead, nickel, and zinc. It is a hazardous waste derived product, produced by high-temperature processing of electric arc furnace (EAF) dust, a listed hazardous waste under the federal government's Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). Although the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) had previously exempted such uses of this material from RCRA Subtitle C regulations (40 CFR 226.20), the agency amended this regulation to effectively prohibit the use of this type of material as an antiskid in 1994. However, in December 1994, the USEPA proposed standards for the management and use of this material (December 29), 1994 - FR Vol. 59, No. 249). The USEPA indicated that the potential risks associated with the use of these types of materials as antiskid "does not present a significant risks." This study consisted of the sampling and analysis (for metals) of surface soils, sediments, and surface waters adjacent to roadways following the application of IRM for one winter season. One sample event was conducted prior to IRM application, and two sample events were conducted following IRM application. Air monitoring was conducted at two stations approximately six months after IRM application. Results of this study demonstrate apparent metals transport from the roadways to the surrounding environment following the application of IRM. However, the study, because of its limited duration and scope, provides no definite conclusions regarding the mech- anism of the transport process. Conclusive findings regarding the ultimate fate of the IRM, the susceptibility of biological receptors, and the impact of repeated use of the material over the course of several years were also beyond the scope of this invest- igation.

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Pioneer Valley Planning Commission, 1986, The Road Salt Management Handbook: Introducing a Reliable Strategy to Safeguard People and Water Resources, West Springfield, Massachusetts, 46 p.

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Portele, G.J., Mar, B.W., Horner, R.R., and Welsh, E.B., 1982., Effects of Seattle area highway stormwater runoff on aquatic biota: Interim Report No. WA-RD-39.11, 45 p.

The impacts of stormwater runoff from Washington State freeways on aquatic ecosystems was investigated through a series of bioassays utilizing algae, and zooplankton and fish. Algae and zooplankton were adversely affected by the soluble fraction of the runoff, while suspended solids caused high moralities of rainbow trout fry. In addition, BOD5 values similar to those reported in the stormwater literature were measured; however, there were indications that results were influenced by toxicity to microbial populations.

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Price, F.A., and Yonge, D.R., 1995, Stormwater Contaminant Removal by Chemicals: Washington State Department of Transportation Research Summary Report WA-RD 358.1, 27 p.

The Washington State Department of Transportation designs, operates and maintains stormwater detention basins for flood control. Initiatives by the Washington State Department of Ecology have prioritized the consideration of stormwater quality as well as quantity for stormwater treatment. Modification of existing stormwater detention basins could afford an efficient mechanism for addressing water quality by enhancing contaminant removal. A scale model of a typical basin was constructed to investigate contaminant removal capabilities of existing detention basins. A simulated highway stormwater runoff was formulated and applied scale model detention basin testing over a range of flow rates. Four coagulants were evaluated for their ability to enhance removal of sediment and metals. Coagulant addition resulted in significant increases in metal removal over the range of stormwater flow rates studied. The greatest improvement was observed at the higher flow rates. Enhanced metals removal resulted from increased removal of small particles and their sorbed metals. Further improvement in contaminant removal was observed following the addition of an influent baffle, resulting improved basin hydraulic characteristics which increased solids detention and minimized short circuiting.

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Qureshi, A.A. and Dultka, B. J. 1979, Microbiological Studies on the Quality of Urban Stormwater Runoff in Southern Ontario, Canada: Water Research, v. 13, p. 977-985.

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Racin, J.A., 1995, Calibrated Splitter Flumes for NPDES Permit Complience, TRB Committee A2A03: Hydrology-Hydraulics-Water Quality, 3p.

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Racin, J.A., and Howell, R.B., 1988, Arid Lands: Hydrology, Scour, and Water Quality. Detention Basins for Water Quality Improvement at High Mountain Maintenance Station: Transportation Research Board Transportation Research Record 1201.

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Racin, J.A., Howell, R.B., Winters, G.R., and Shirley, E.D., 1982, Estimating Highway Runoff Quality, FHWA/CA/TL-82/11, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA., 97 p.

The development of regression equations for estimating the quality of runoff from highways is documented. Data were collected during the 1980-81 wet season at the two completely paved urban highway segments in California: I-405 in Los Angeles and I-680 in Walnut Creek. Data for evaluation of regression equations were collected during the 1979-80 wet season at U.S. 50 in Sacramento. Rainfall and runoff were monitored continuously. Bubbler flow meters were used with automatic sequential samplers so that storm water samples could be collected to characterize entire storm events. Constituents analyzed were boron, total lead, total zinc, nitrate (nitrogen), ammonia (nitrogen), total Kjeldahl nitrogen, total phosphorus, dissolved orthophosphate, oil and grease, nonfilterable residue, filterable residue, total cadmium, and chemical oxygen demand. Seventeen regression equations are reported. Vehicles during the storm was evaluated and accepted as a satisfactory independent variable for estimating the loads of total lead, total zinc, filterable residue, chemical oxygen demand, and total Kjeldahl nitrogen. Total residue was evaluated and accepted as a satisfactory independent variable for estimating total zinc, nonfilterable residue, and chemical oxygen demand. Estimates made using these equations should be limited to highways with average daily traffic of at least 30,000 vehicles. Antecedent dry days was found not to be a satisfactory independent variable.

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Roberts, B.C., Best Management Practices for Erosion and Sediment Contorol, FHWA-FLP-94-005

The purpose of this manual is to provide guidance in preventing erosion and controlling sediment on highway construction projects. It addresses the selection of erosion and sediment control measures and the development of erosion control plans. Construction and inspection of the measures are presented for each practice.

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Rowe, B.L., Summary of Published Aquatic Toxicity Information and Water-Quality Criteria for Selected Voaltile Organic Compounds.

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are being measured in stream samples as part of the U.S. Geological Survey's National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program. Published freshwater aquatic toxicity information and water-quality criteria for VOCs were compiled to compare with the measured concentrations. Aquatic toxicity informaiton for VOCs was retrieved from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (USEPA's) toxicity data base, AQUatic toxicity information Retrieval (AQUIRE). Toxicity information that had complete or moderately complete documentation was available for 60 of the 87 VOCs that are being measured in water samples. Most toxicity information was from studies of 96 hours or less, and species mortality was typically the endpoint of the toxicity test. A number of published studies using the same species, duration, and endpoint were available for some VOCs. In these instances, only the two studies that reported the lowest concentrations that had an effect were included in the summary. VOCs that had the lowest concentrations that affected a species ranged between 6.5ug/L (micrograms per liter) for 1,1,2,3,4,4-hexachloro-1,3butadiene and 5,091,000 ug/L for 2-butanone. 9;The USEPA and Canadian Council of Resource and Environment Ministers have established water-quality criteria and guidelines for 39 of the 87 VOC s measured in water samples by the NAWQU Program. Criteria and guidelines range from 0.1 ug/L for 1,1,2,3,4,4-hexachloro-1,3-butadiene to 860,000 ug/L for 3-chloro-1propen and chloroethane. These water quality criteria, guidelines, and toxicity information will be used by NAWQA to assess the status of the Nation's water quality and are available for use by individuals, agencies, and organizations to evaluate the potential effect of vocs on aquatic life in streams and rivers.

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Sadecki, R.W., Busacker, G.P., Moxness, K.L., Faruq K.C., and Allen, L.G., 1996, An investigation of water quality in runoff from stockpiles of salvaged concrete and bituminous paving: Minnesota Department of Transportation Final Report MNR-96/31, 112 p.

The Stockpile Runoff Project addressed environmental concerns regarding the quality of runoff water from salvaged pavement stockpiles. Three experimental stockpiles were studied , one pile consisted of coarse concrete, a second consisted of fine concrete material, and the third consisted of salvaged bituminous material (recycled asphalt product) obtained from a pavement milling project. The leachate water from the piles flowed through a sampling and flow monitoring system with data loggers and automated sequence samplers. Composite water samples were analyzed using EPA approved methods and quality control protocols. Comparing the observed median values for the stockpile runoff with Minnesota standards for leachates emanating from stockpiles, the long-term concern reduces to suspended and dissolved solids, and pH. Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) concentrations from the bituminous millings pile were near of below detectable limits. Planning for stockpile storage sites should include management practices of controlling runoff similar to those that are used for construction sites. Berms, straw bales, grass or other filter channels, and locating stockpile sire some distance form surface waters amy be appropriate practices. Possible impacts on the groundwater system should be considered.

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Schiffer, D.M., 1989, Impacts of stormwater management practices on groundwater: Florida Department of Transportation Final Report FL/DOT/SMO/90-378, 79 p.

Water quality of the surficial aquifer system was evaluated at one exfoliations pipe, two ponds (detention and retention), and two swales in central Florida, representing three runoff detention methods, to detect any effects from infiltrating highway runoff. Concentration of major ions, metals, and nutrients were measured in groundwater and bottom sediments from 1984 through 1986. Significant differences for most variables were indicated among groundwater quality data pooled by detention method. Nitrate nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations were highest in groundwater near swales and the exfoliations pipe, and Kjeldahl nitrogen was highest near ponds. Chromium, copper, and lead concentrations in groundwater were frequently below detection levels at all study areas, and no significant differences among detention methods were detested for any metal concentration with the exception of iron. High iron concentrations in groundwater near the detention pond and one swale most likely were naturally occurring and unrelated to highway runoff. Results of the study indicate that natural processes occurring in soils attenuate inorganic constituents in runoff prior to reaching the receiving groundwater. However, organic compounds detected in sediments at the retention pond indicate a potential problem that may eventually affect the quality of the receiving groundwater.

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Schiffer, D.M., 1990, Wetlands for stormwater treatment: Florida Department of Transportation Final Report FL/DOT/SMO/90-377, 63 p.

Results of a study of the effects of highway runoff on the chemical quality of water and bed sediments of a cypress wetland and a freshwater marsh in central Florida indicate that detention of the runoff prior to release into the wetland reduces concentrations of automobile-related chemicals in the water and bed sediments in the wetland. Detention of highway runoff for the cypress wetland occurs in a 68 by 139 foot detention pond, and in a 12 by 25 foot trash retainer for the freshwater marsh. The analysis of the chemical data for water and bed sediments indicates that many of the observed differences in chemistry are due to the difference in detention facilities. Results from this study indicate that detention structures, larger than the trash retainer at the freshwater marsh, amy cause sufficient sorption and settling of substances contained in highway runoff to minimize the transport and deposition of some undesirable chemicals into wetlands./

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Schueler, T.R., 1987, Controlling Urban Runoff: a practicle manual for planning and designing urban BMP's, Department of Environmental Programs, Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments, Washington DC.of Governments, 777 North Capitol St., NE Suite 300, Washington, D.C. 20002-4201.

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Sheftick, D.E., 1991, Verglimit deicing chemical asphalt additive, SR 309- 02M, Lehigh County: Federal Highway Administration, Pennsylvania Department of Transportation Construction Report FHWAA-041+83-39, 53 p.

In 1988, the Pennsylvania Department of transportation (PennDOT) constructed a ice retardant bituminous concrete overlay on SR 309, Section 02M in Lehigh County.. The chemical additive Verglimit was added to the bituminous concrete mix at a rate of five percent of the total mix weight to produce the ice retardant mix. 9;Only minor mix design and construction modifications were necessary to produce this ice retardant mix. The asphalt content of the Verglimit modified mix was increased by 0.1 percent as compared to the control mix of a standard ID-2 wearing course. The weight percent of aggregrate retained on the #200 up through the #4 sized sieves was reduced by 8.8 to 9.9 percent to compensate for the addition of Verglimit particles into the mix. 9;Construction modifications included: - restricting the amount of water added to the roller during initial compaction operations. - preading mortar sand onto the overlay surface and rolling it into the surface during final compaction operations. - Flushing the finished pavement with water from a high pressure distributor truck to prevent slippery surface conditions due to bleeding of the Verglimit additive.

Although post construction bleeding of the pavement was noticed, skid test performed five and eight days after construction indicated that the overlay had adequate friction resistance. Skid resistance values ranged from 46 to 77. The performance of the Verglimit overlay has been identical to that of the standard mix ID-2 overlay placed on this project. Maximum rut depths were measured at 3/8 inch in both the Verglimit and standard mix sections. No conclusions as to the deicing effectiveness of Verglimit can be made since the project was never monitored during any snowfalls or freezing precipitation events.

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Sieber, P., 1994, CDOT's Impacts from NPDES Stormwater Regulations: Colorado Department of Transportation, in Transportation Research Board 74th Annual Meeting, Washington D.C., January 22-28, 1995, 17 p.

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Sieber, P., and Moser, R.R., 1995, Erosion Control And Stormwater Quality Guide: Colorado Department of Transportation, 78 p.

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Sorensen, D.L., Mortenson, V., Zollinger, R.L., 1996, A Review and Synthesis of the Impacts of Road Salting on Water Quality: Utah Department of Transportation Final Report UT-95.08, 88 p.

Deicing of roads by using salts increased the safety of winter travel. Salts from deicing operations may degrade the quality of groundwater, streams, or lakes. A literature review on the water quality effects of road salting and a survey of state transportation agencies about existing information and on-going studies was conducted. Surface water quality and aquifer water quality in the Salt Lake City metropolitan area were examined for trends or patterns that may be related to road salting. Preliminary guidance for the preparation of a deicing chemical use plan for Utah was prepared. The scope of the study did not include alternative deicing chemical evaluation. Road salting's most deleterious effects on surface water are confined mainly to small streams running adjacent to roadways treated with salts. Persistent concentrations of chloride in excess of 500mg/L may harm fish and other aquatic life. Groundwater salinity increases from road salting may violate state groundwater quality antidegradation standards and/or decrease the acceptance of the water as a drinking water or industrial water source. Groundwater recharge areas and drinking water supply well head areas are the most important to protect from application of salts. Increasing early spring salinities in Salt Lake City area streams suggest that cultural activities. Including road salting, effect surface water quality. Thirty-four states with snow and ice removal programs responded to the questionnaire. Several of these states are involved in road salting research and some states have implemented deicing management plans that include reductions in salt use and the use of alternative deicing chemicals. Forty-seven percent of the respondents indentified groundwater and surface water quality as road salting concerns. Environmental regulatory issues were of concern to 21 to 26% of those responding. A best management plan for decreasing deicing chemical use should identify areas where high quality water resources need to be protected it should consider alternative deicers and grit for use in sensitive areas, develop a decision support system for determining when deicing should be done and the appropriate deicing materials to be used and provide for operator training

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St. John, M.S., and Horner, R.R., Effect of road shoulder treatments on highway runoff quality and quantity, WA-RD-429.1

This project examined the role that road shoulders play in the stormwater runoff process. The goal of the research was to determine the type of shoulder treatment that yields the least quantity of runoff of the highest quality. Three types of shoulder materials were tested: conventional asphalt, gravel, and porous asphalt. Porous asphalt allows water to penetrate and flow through the pavement to a sublayer, and it can be used in place of conventional asphalt on low-traffic roadways. Each of the three shoulder materials were identified. The porous asphalt shoulders demonstrated a greater potential to reduce run- off volumes and peak discharge rates than gravel and conventional asphalt shoulders. During typical wet season storms (0.76 cm {0.3in) the porous asphalt and gravel shoulder test sections reduced runoff volumes by approximately 85 and 30 percent, respectively, in comparison to the conventional asphalt test sections. The ability of the porous asphalt shoulders to reduce pollutant loads far exceeded that of the gravel and conventional asphalt shoulders. During typical wet season storms the solids and pollutant loads from the porous asphalt shoulders were more than 90 percent lower than the loads from the conventional asphalt shoulders. The gravel shoulders yielded load reductions ranging from 10 to 70 percent lower than the conventional asphalt, although ortho-phosphorous loads exceeded those of the conventional asphalt shoulder by nearly 30 percent. Removal rates were highest for those pollutants that were correlated with total suspended solids (0.70<0.95), indicating that physical mechanisms of settling and filtration were critical in removing pollutants from the runoff over both porous asphalt and soluble pollutants, particularly ortho-phosphorous, than the conventional asphalt and gravel shoulders. After one year of use the porous asphalt shoulders showed no signs of clogging, maintaining infiltration rates of 4445 cm/hr (1750 in/hr).

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Stockdale, E.C., 1991, Freshwater wetlands, urban stormwater, and nonpoint pollution control - A literature review and annotated bibliography--Second Edition: Washington State Department of Ecology, Olympia, WA., 267 p.

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Straub, D.E., FHWA-OH-95-020

Excessive water in the subbase of a highway combined with large traffic volumes and heavy loads is a major cause of road deterioration. Prompt removal of any excess water in a subbase will decrease the road deterioration and extend the effective life of a highway. This study presents discharge characteristics of four highway subbase drainage systems. These systems consisted of shallow, longitudinal trenches with geocomposite drain materials (edge drains made from a polyethylene core surrounded by a geotextile filter fabric) that underlie the joint between the shoulder and the traffic lane of State Route 16, approximately 1.0 mile southeast of Granville, Ohio. For selected rainfall-runoff events the maximum discharge, discharge volumes, and lag times for specific discharge characteristics from April 1991 through November 1993 were computed for thre geocomposite products - a post type, an oblong-pipe type, and a cusp type -and a conventional perforated pipe edge drain. In general, the discharge characteristics of the conventional edge drain and that of the oblong-pipe edge drain were similar for most of the rainfall-runoff event characteristics. Both produced most of the highest maximum discharges and largest discharge volumes among the four longitudinal edge drains. The post edge drain produced smaller maximum discharges and volumes than the conventional and oblong-pipe drains, but it had the shortest lag times for most of the event characteristics. The cusp edge drain may have also had some problems during installation which could have affected the discharge characteriestics.

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Sylvester, R.O., and DeWalle, F.B., 1972, Character and significance of highwayrunoff waters, A preliminary appraisal: University of Washington, Washington State Highway Department, Research Program Report 7.1, 106 p.

A study was conducted on the character and significance of highway runoff waters for the Washington Department of Highways and the Federal Highway Administration. This preliminary appraisal of runoff quality consisted of a literature review and critique plus a limited amount of field sampling on SR 520. Although a large amount of information is present in the literature concerning urban runoff, there is very little strictly related to highways and their rights-of -way. Highway runoff is similar to urban area runoff but may be higher in h3avy metals and oil. A significant fraction of the heavy metals, oil and nutrients are adsorbed to the dust and dirt fractions and then may be removed by sedimentation. Runoff from the lake bridges should have a very insignificant effect on Lake Washington in comparison with the urban runoff to the lake. Recommendations are made for mitigating runoff effects and for conducting an intensive study of highway runoff water quality and its significance.

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Tenney, S., Barrett, M.E., Malina, J.F., Charbeneau, R.J., 1996, Evaluation of Highway Runoff Filtration Systems: Federal Highway Administration Technical Report FHWA/TX-96/1943-6, 140 p.

A number of permanent runoff controls wee constructed along new highways in the Edwards aquifer recharge zone, with their performance monitored since the highways opened. The control systems consist of a hazardous material trap, a sedimentation basin, and a vertical sand filter. The filter, constructed as part of the wall of the basin, is held in place with filter fabric and rock gabions. Numerous problems have been documented with these systems, mostly in conjunction with the performance of the vertical sand filter.. Sedimentation was the most important pollutant removal mechanism for the runoff control systems. Modification of runoff control systems that focus on extending the detention time of the basin may be more effective in controlling suspended solids in runoff than enhancing the filter performance. Scour and resuspension of sediments were observed in the detention basins. Sediment and suspended solids removal efficiencies can be increased and maintenance requirements reduced by the installation of rock gabions, baffles, or other devices that reduce resuspension of solids. Laboratory bench-scale filtration columns using various media were investigated at the Center for Research in Water Resources. The performance of filtration media and adsorptive media was also evaluated. Media selected for thee experiments included a well-sorted medium grain size sand, a fine aggregate, grade 5 gravel, compost, and zeolites. The data indicate that the compost is a very effective medium. It out-performed the other media for the removal of TSS, oil, and grease, and metals. However, the compost decomposes and subsequent breakthrough occurs. The medium sand performed well for the removal of TSS and most of the metals. Zeolites, pea gravel, and grade 5 gravel were not effective filtration media.

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Tetra Tech, Inc., 1996, Caltrans district 7, 1995-1996, Stormwater monitoring summary report: State of California Department of Transportation, J.N.: CA-TTI-06, 42 p.

Four separate storm events were monitored as part of stormwater monitoring activities for the three Caltrans District 7 monitoring stations located in Los Angeles metropolitan area. The purpose of the monitoring activities was to fulfill the stormwater monitoring commitments of Caltrans District 7 for the Los Angeles Regional Water Quality Control Board (Regional Board) for the rainy season November 1995 through May 1996. The monitoring activities were in response to the 1990 NPDES Permit No. CA0061654 (Board Order No. 93-081), a 1993 cease and desist order issued by the Regional Board, and a December 14, 1994 court order injunction. The four storms monitored are the December 12 - 13, 1995; January 16,1995; January 30-31, 1996; and February 19-21, 1996 events. Highway stormwater runoff was monitored at three sites. These sites were adjacent to two Los Angeles County freeway systems (I-405 and I-101) which drained into three separate receiving waters (Ballona Creek, Los Angeles River, and Dominguez Channel). Grab and composite samples were manually collected and analyzed for the list of EPA priority pollutants as requested by the Regional Board, Los Angeles Region. Samples were manually collected using calibrated composite roadside flumes which diverted a fraction of the flow into plastic-lined containers. Samples were collected at three separate times during the storm events: from the flume's outfall one hour after the start of flow in the flumes: from the storage tanks about four hours after the beginning of the storms: and from the storage tanks at the end of the storm. Key pollutants with detected concentrations at or above the Method Detection Limits (MDL's) included bacteria, oil and grease, total dissolved solids, total and volatile suspended solids, nitrogen compounds, phosphorus compounds, BOC, COD, chloride, sulfate, TRPH, and metals (Barium, calcium, chromium, copper, iron, lead, magnesium, manganese, potassium, nickel, sodium and zinc). Metal concentrations presented in this report represent total concentrations, since samples were not filtered in the field or the laboratory. Occasional high bacteria concentrations may have been caused by possible bird droppings in the collection apparatus and/or presence of rodents that may have been living in or around the inlet pipes at the monitoring stations. Finally, it should be noted that the 1995-96 Caltrans District 7 monitoring program experienced problems typically associated with manual sampling. The key disadvantages included its labor intensiveness, possible dangers to field personnel, possible human error, need for flow measurement during sampling, and a requirement for quick response by field personnel to arrive at the sites prior to the rain events.

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Tetra Tech, Inc., 1996, Stormwater monitoring plan Caltrans district 7, postsampling report, storm #1, December 12-13, 1995 storm event: State of California Department of Transportation, J.N.: CA-TTI-06.

Three sets of samples were collected from the December 12th - December 13th storm, from the three Caltrans District 7 monitoring sites. This included one sample from the runoff in the flume at the end of the first hour of runoff in the flume, one composite sample from the storage tank at the end of the storm. Rainfall, runoff, and storage tank stages were monitored in the first 4 hours of runoff in the flume and at the end of the sampling event. At site 3, a leak was detected in the storage tank liner at the end of the sampling event, Thus, no tank stage measurement was made. At the end of the sampling event, the storage tank held adequate storm water for samples to be collected; however, the results of the chemical analyses may be suspect due to the leaking liner (e.g. high lead concentrations are probably attributed to the high sediment content of the stormwater in the tank caused by the leak). Even though it was not observed by the field personnel at he time of sampling at Site 2, the higher than usual concentration of certain compounds such as metals and TDS (specifically when concentrations in the end of storm composite sample are higher than the four-hour composite sample concentrations) is an indication that a leak may have occurred in the storage tank liner and the results are suspect. Suspected results from the end of storm composite samples from sites 2 and 3 were discarded and are omitted from the summary of results presented for Event 1. table is a summary of the December 12th - 13th event activities, and comparison to other 1995-1996 Caltrans District 7 storm water monitoring events. Rainfall measurements at the three sites indicated that a total of about 0.47 inches, 0.22 inches, and 0.34 inches of rainfall were recorded in the four hour duration of stormwater sampling for sites 1,2 and 3 respectively. On December 13th, a total of 1.22 inches, 0.43 inches were measured in the rain gauges at sites 1 and 2 respectively (rainfall measurements were not conducted at site 3). The report provides a summary of the laboratory results for detected pollutants tested for the three sets of samples from the three Caltrans monitoring sites. The first hour grab samples all detected high concentrations of Oil and Grease, Total Phenolics, and Bacteria. Bacteria concentrations at site 2 (southbound 101 fwy, south of Topanga Canyon Road) and Site 3 (southbound 405 fwy, near 182nd street) were an order of magnitude higher than concentrations at Site 3 (northbound 405, south of Santa Monica Boulevard). It is believed that possible bird droppings on collection apparatus or presence of rodents that may have been living in or around the inlet pipes to the monitoring stations may have caused the high bacteria results in the samples. It should be noted that concentration values reported here for metals represent the worst case scenario and may not present a realistic picture. The total recoverable metals method was used, representing metals in the dissolved form plus metals associate with sediment. The procedure typically used to obtain total recoverable metals includes acidifying the entire sample at the time of collection with nitric acid. At the time of analysis the sample is heated with acid and substantially reduced in volume. The digestate is filtered and diluted in volume, and is then ready for analysis. To obtain dissolved metal concentrations in a sample, it should be filtered through a 0.45 _m filter at the time of collection and the liquid phase of the sample is then acidified with nitric acid (of the time of collection). If metals are to be monitored in the 1996-1997 rainy season, it is recommended that a combination of total recoverable and dissolved metal concentrations be measured to give a more realistic picture.

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Tetra Tech, Inc., 1996, Stormwater monitoring plan Caltrans district 7, post sampling report, storm #2, January 16, 1996 storm event: State of California Department of Transportation, J.N.: CA-TTI-06.

Two sets of samples were collected from the January 16th storm, from the three Caltrans District 7 monitoring sites. This included one sample from the runoff in the flume at the end of the first hour of runoff in the flume, and one composite sample from the storage tank at the end of the fourth hour of runoff in the flume. Rainfall, runoff, and storage tank stages were monitored in the first four hours of runoff in the flume. At site 1, a hole was detected in the top storage tank liner which caused leaking of storm water into the bottom tank liner; and thus, tank stage measurements at this site may not be accurate. Rainfall measurements at the three sites indicated that a total of about 0.035 inches, 0.04 inches and 0.142 inches of rainfall were recorded in the four hour duration of stormwater sampling for sites 1,2,3 respectively. The first hour grab samples all detected high concentrations of Oil an Grease, Total Phenolics and bacteria; however, the detected bacteria concentrations were extensively lower than concentrations detected in the storm 1 (12-12-95) sampling. It was believed that possible bird droppings on collection apparatus or presence or rodents that may have been living in or around he inlet pipes to the monitoring stations may have cause the high bacteria result samples. It should be noted that the concentration values reported here for metals represent the worst case scenario and may not present a realistic picture. The total recoverable metals method was used, representing metals in the dissolved form plus metals associated with sediment. The procedure typically used to obtain total recoverable metals includes acidifying the entire sample at the time of collection with nitric acid. At the time of analysis the sample is heated with acid and substantially reduced in volume. The digestate is filtered and diluted in volume, and is then ready for analysis. To obtain dissolved metal concentrations in a sample, it should be filtered through a .45_m filter at the time of collection and the liquid phase of the sample is then acidified with nitric acid (of the tie of collection). If metals are to be monitored in the 1996-1997 rainy season, it is recommended that a combination of total recoverable and dissolved metal concentrations be measured to give a more realistic picture.

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Tetra Tech, Inc., 1996, Stormwater monitoring plan Caltrans district 7, Postsampling report, storm #3, January 30-31, 1996 storm event: State of California Department of Transportation, J.N.: CA-TTI-06.

One set of composite samples was collected from the January 30th-31st storm, from Caltrans District 7 monitoring sites 2 and 3. The extent of sampling for this storm included only collecting one composite sample from the storage tank at the end of the storm. Total rainfall volumes were measured at the end of the sampling event. Due to the light and long duration of the storm, and the fact that adequate rainfall was not accumulated in the first few hours of the storm, the first-hour grab and fourth-hour composite samples were omitted from the storm 3 sampling event; furthermore, at site 1, due to operator error, the flume gate was not opened until half-way into the storm, and. thus, samples collected at the end of the storm were discarded due to non-representation of the total storm runoff quality. At site 3, a leak was detected in the storage tank liner at the end of the storm; however at the end of the sampling event, the storage tank at site 3 held adequate storm water for a representative sample to be collected. Rainfall measurements indicated a total of about 1.30 inches, 1.35 inches and 1.30 inches for sites 1,2, and 3 respectively. table 1 is a summary of the January 30th - 31st event activities, and comparison to other 1995-1996 Caltrans District 7 storm water monitoring events. It should be noted that concentration values reported here for metals represent the worst case scenario and may not present a realistic picture. The total recoverable metals method was used, representing metals in the dissolved form plus metals associated with sediment. The procedure typically used to obtain total recoverable metals includes acidifying the entire sample at the time of collection with nitric acid. At the time of analysis, the sample is heated with acid and substantially reduced in volume. The digestate is filtered and diluted in volume, and then is ready for analysis. To obtain dissolved metal concentrations in a sample, it should be filtered through a 0.45 _m filter at the time of collection and the liquid phase of the sample is then acidified with nitric acid (at the time of collection). If metals are to be monitored in the 1996-1997 rainy season, it is recommended that a combinations of total recoverable and dissolved metal concentrations be measured to give a more realistic picture.

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Tetra Tech, Inc., 1996, Stormwater monitoring plan Caltrans district 7, postsampling report, storm #4, February 19, 20, 21, 1996 storm event: State of California Department of Transportation, J.N.: CA-TTI-06.

Three sets of samples were collected from the February, 19th - 21st storm, from the three Caltrans District 7 monitoring sites. This included one sample from the runoff in the flume at the end of first hour runoff, one composite sample from the storage tank at the end of the storm. Rainfall, runoff and storage tank stages were monitored in the first 4 hours of runoff in the flume and at the end of the sampling event. At site 2, the flume appeared to be tilted and not aligned at its design slope; thus, flume height measurement may not be precise. Additionally, at the end of the sampling event, on February 21st, it was noticed that the flume flow splitters at sites 1 and 2 were blocked with debris and trash. The obstruction of the splitters may have impacted the storage tank heights; however at the end of the event, the storage tanks held adequate storm water for composite samples to be collected. table 1 is a summary of the February 19th - 21st even activities, and comparison to other 1995-1996 Caltrans District 7 storm water monitoring events. Rainfall measurements indicated that a total of about 0.46 inches, 0.31 inches and 0.16 inches of rainfall were recorded in the four hour duration of stormwater sampling for sites 1,2, and 3, respectively. On February 21st, a total of 4.95 inches, 2.8 inches and 2.65 inches were measured in the rain gauges at sites 1,2,and 3 respectively. The first hour grab samples all detected very high concentrations of Oil and Grease, Total Phenolics, and Bacteria. It is believed that possible bird droppings in the collection apparatus and/or presence of rodents in or around the inlet pipes to the monitoring stations may have caused the high bacteria results in samples.

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Texas Department of Transportation, Sept. 1993, Stormwater management guidelines for construction activities, (users manual) Prepared for the Storm Water Management Task Force, 150 p.

Construction and urbanization are two major causes of water pollution.Disturbance of the soil resulting from construction can accelerate the erosion process and increase the sediment load in runoff and adversely affect receiving waters. In addition, increased impermeable surface due to urbanization can alter the quantity and quality of storm water runoff by facilitating the transportation of runoff and can include habitat alteration, higher peak flows and flooding, erosion, and increased pollutant loads (sediment, metals, nutrients, bacteria, etc.) Involvement in construction and urbanization makes TxDOT a key player in the control of storm water pollution. As a key player, it is TxDOT's responsibility to be aware of the problem and to take measures to minimize and/or prevent storm water pollution. Therefore, it is the goal of TxDOT to prevent the degradation of receiving waters due to storm water runoff from highway operations. TxDOT is developing a comprehensive storm water management program aimed at achieving this goal. It is the pollution in all aspects of TxDOT's operations is necessary for a successful program but construction activities deserve particular attention. Although other issues are mentioned such as project planning and maintenance, the focus of this document is to provide guidance on the use of storm water management measures during highway construction.

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Thiem, L.T., Alkhatib, E.A., Bade, S.K., and Panganamamula, A.,(1996 in press), Characterization of Roadway Runoff Proir to Treatment: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Rhode Island, Rhode Island Department of Transportation Report FHWA-RI-RD-95-01, 104p.

Roadway runoff can be a significant source of pollution to the surface and groundwaters to which it is discharged. Proper design of roadway runoff treatment systems requires the knowledge of the pollutants present, peak concentrations, volumetric mass loading and seasonal variations. Three sampling locations in the State of Rhode Island having different Average Daily Traffic (ADT) values, drainage areas and land uses were selected to characterize roadway runoff. A total of six rain storms, including two winter and four non-winter storms were sampled. The collected water samples were analyzed for suspended solids, metals, nutrients, organic and inorganic chemicals. Roadway runoff constituents were grouped into three Types based on interactions with particulate fraction. Type I (Cadmium, Iron Lead, TSS, VSS) are those associated with particulates, Type II (Calcium, Chloride, Magnesium, Nickel, Nitrate, Sodium) are dissolved form, Type III (Chromium, Copper, Oil & Grease, Phosphate, TOC, Zinc) have characteristics in common with both Type I and Type II constituents. Both natural (leaf fall) and Anthropogenic (application of deicing agents) seasonal characteristics were found to be factors affecting the concentration and loads of Calcium, Chloride, Nitrate, Sodium and TOC. A first flush period during which contaminants are present in high concentration ad mass loadings was observed at all of the sites for most of the contaminants. The ranges of ADT values selected for this study did not affect the magnitude of the pollutant concentrations and loads. Land use and seasonal characteristics appeared to have the most impact on the magnitude of mass loadings from roadway runoff.

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Thomson, N.R., McBean, E.A., Mostrenko, I.B., 1996, Prediction and characterization of highway stormwater runoff quality: The Research & Development Branch, Ministry of Transportation, Ontario, 98 p.

The purpose of this study was to improve methods for predicting concentrations of pollutants in highway stormwater runoff, as a tool for assisting in determining priorities for managing runoff. Of 43 databases identified in the U.S., Britain, and Germany, a Minnesota database was analyzed because it has a large number of events (over 400) and had a similar climate to Ontario. No comparable Canadian databases are available. Models were developed which relate concentrations of pollutants such as heavy metals (copper, zinc)chlorides, and nutrients (phosphorus, nitrogen) to four surrogate variables (suspended solids, dissolved, solids, volatile solids, total organic carbon)for one urban Minnesota site (I-94, 110,000 ADT). For example, Lead (ug/L) = 1.72 (TSS mg/L) -0.00286(TDS, mg/l), with an r2 of 0.82. The 'pollutant' models were tested with data from three other Minnesota sites and four other U.S. highway sites (Milwaukee I-94, Denver I-25, Harrisburg I-81, Nashville I-40). The tests indicated that the models provided reasonable first order estimates of pollutant concentrations, but that changes in model coefficients are needed to provide more precise, site-specific estimates. An analysis which attempted to relate the concentrations of these surrogate variables to site characteristics (traffic density, watershed area) were statistically limited by the few degrees of freedom available from the four Minnesota sites.

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Thornton, S.I., Fly ash leachate in highways.

Fly ash, a pozzolanic by-product of coal burning, can replace lime or portland cement in highway base or fill construction. Only 13% of the fly ash produced in 1980 was used in commercial applications, making fly ash an abundant source of highway construction material. Leachate from a fly ash fill is a potential environmental problem. Effluent from tests on an ASTM type C and type F fly ash produced from Wyoming and Kansas coals had high pH, alkalinity, and dissolved solids concentrations. The pH ranged between 107 a maximum of 580 mg/l and hardness 640 mg/l. All values decreased with increasing volume of water. Some fly ashes from Michigan reported pH's between 7.4 and 11.4 with total dissolved solids near 1700 mg/l. Permeability of fly ash in fills varies widely. When placed in a slurry, the type C fy ash from Wymoing has a permeability of 3x10-6 cm/sec. Even when mixed with sand or clay on a 50% by weight basis, the soil-fly ash mixtures had permeabilities in the 10-6 cm/sec range. When placed dry, however, the type C fly ash developed cracks due to the reaction with water, creating secondary permeability of 1x10-3 cm/sec. Observed permeabilities of the Michigan fly ashes were in the 10-3 cm/sec. range. Covers over fills to prevent infiltration or encapsulation of bases can prevent the formation of elachate.

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Trost, S.E., Heng, F.J., and Cussler, E.L., 1988, Chemistry of Deicing Roads - Penetrating the Ice: Minnesota Department of Transportation UM-TOC-25; MN/RC-88/6, 20 p.

Experimental measurements of the rates at which sodium chloride, calclum chloride, urea and calclum magnesium acetate (CMA) penetrate ice are consistent with a theory developed to predict this rate. The speed of this penetration can thus be compared with the speed of other steps in road deicing.9

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Umeda, P.J., 1988, Use of Vegetation to Reduce the Toxicity of Stormwater Runoff, FHWA/CA/TL-88-06, California Department of Transportation, 39 p.

The purpose of the research is to determine if dead or dormant vegetation effectively reduces the toxicity of and removes pollutants from highway stormwater runoff and to determine the amount of metallic pollution discharged from vegetated ditches via the transport of dead vegetation. The research will also determine the type of maintenance practices that are necessary to maintain the pollutant removal capacity of vegetated channels. This research project will consist of three phases. Each phase will require several tasks to be completed. The purpose of this report is to present the findings of Phase I. The tasks involved included a literature survey, site selection, and equipment design, fabrication and installation. Two sites were selected for the research project. The irrigation system was installed, grass seed was sown and runoff samplers were fabricated and placed in the channel.

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Vincent, M., 1988, A Road Salt Management Strategy for the Scituate Reservoir Watershed: Division of Planning, R.I. Department of Adminstration, Report No. 63, 50p.

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Vlasin, R.D., 1978, Ecological Effects of Highway Construction Upon Michigan Woodlots and Wetlands: U.S. Department of Transportation Final Research Report Phase II, 254 p.

A one year study was performed to research methods for objectively measuring and evaluating natural science parameters and their interrelationships as they aid in under- standing environmental impacts resulting from highway activities. The most recent literature pertinent to this study was reviewed providing new insights that when added to existing knowledge increased the level of understanding in this area. This effort yielded an updated annotated bibliography to augment the annotated bibliography compiled in Phase I. Secondly, a conceptual framework was developed, built on ecological principles, for organizing information to aid in evaluating key interrelationships among natural science parameters as they relate to environmental impacts resulting from highway activities. An Environmental Highway Interaction Matrix was assembled to serve as a tool to identify potential impacts of highway activities on soils, water, flora, and fauna. The Michigan Land Cover/Use Classification System was modified and incorporated into an ecological approach for highway routing in Michigan. A guide for highway planners, designers, and decision makers was then developed to objectively evaluate environments before construction that may be impacted by future highway projects. Field examination of sensitive sites identified in Phase I provided information which aided in constructing the conceptual framework, identifying important relationships between natural science parameters and illustrating how the Guide to Planners, Designers, and Decision Makers operates. In addition a study was performed to determine winter utilization of highway ROWs and surrounding areas by snowshoe hare and white-tailed deer. The information assembled in this report provides a logical basis for incorporating natural science parameters into the route location process. If the procedures described are utilized by Michigan Department of State Highways and Transportation personnel, alternative highway routes can be compared in a more analytical was before construct- ion.

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Wanielista, M.P., Charba, J., Dietz, J., Lott, R.S., and Russell, B., 1991, Evaluation of the stormwater treatment facilities at the Lake Angel detention pond Orange County, Florida: Florida Department of Transportation Final Report FL-ER-49-91, 168 p.

This is the final report on the use of Granulated Active Carbon (GAC) beds of Filtrasorb 400 in series to reduce the Trihalomethane Formation Potential (THMFP) concentrations at the Lake Angel detention pond, Orange County, Florida. The detention pond accepts runoff from an interstate highway and a commercial area. Breakthrough time was estimated from laboratory analyses and used to design two beds in series at the detention pond. Breakthrough occurred in the first bed after treating 138,000 liters of water. Exhaustion of the first bed was reached after treating 1270 bed volumes with a sorption zone length of 1.70 feet. The TOC adsorbed per gram of GAC was 6.3 mg. The liquid flow rate averaged 0.0011 cfs. Similar breakthrough curves for Total Organic Carbon (TOC) and color were also reported. The used GAC can be disposed of by substituting it for sand in concrete mixes. An economic evaluation of the GAC system at Lake Angel demonstrated an annual cost of $4.39/1000 gallons to treat the stormwater runoff after detention and before discharge into a drainage well. This cost could be further reduced by using the stormwater to irrigate right-of-way sections of the watershed. An alternative method of pumping to another drainage basin was estimated to be more expensive. The underdrain network for the GAC system initially became clogged with the iron and sulfur-precipitating bacteria Leptothrix, Gallionella and Thicthrix. These bacteria were substantially reduced by altering the influent GAC system pipeline to take water directly from the lake. An alternate pipe system used a clay layer to reduce groundwater inputs and did not exhibit substantial bacterial growth.

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Wanielista, M.P., Gennaro, R.N., Bell, J.H., Johnson, J.W., 1978, Shallow Water Roadside Ditches for Stormwater Purification: Florida Technological University, Orlando, 75 p.

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Wanielista, M.P., Smith, R., Castro, A., Cooper, D., 1982, Mixing Zones: University of Central Florida College of Engineering, Orlando Florida FL-ER-24-82, 130 p.

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Wanielista, M.P., and Yousef, Y.A., 1990, Best Management Practices Overview: Urban Runoff Quality, p. 314-322.

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Wanielista, M.P., Yousef, Y.A., Boss, C.A., 1988, Alternatives for the treatment of groundwater contaminants - A detention pond with groundwater inflow: Florida Department of Transportation Final Report FL-ER-88-40, 104 p.

This research on stormwater detention ponds has focused on documenting the water quality performance of a detention pond. The detention pond, namely Lake Angel, located near Orlando, Florida, receives stormwater runoff from a 131-acre watershed. Hydrologic data such as precipitation, runoff, and pond outflow were measured at the site. Total and suspended solids, inorganic and organic carbon, dissolved metals (zinc, copper, iron, and lead) and biological indicator data for the detention pond outflow, pond water, groundwater and stormwater runoff were collected. Using these data both the hydrologic budget and removal efficiency based on concentration were determined. Outlet flow rate data were measured continuously. However, all quality and quantity data were simulated on an hourly basis for one year. A computer program, STORCALC, was written to simulate inlet and outlet flow rates and solids, carbon, and metals concentrations. Groundwater inflow rates were determined from a hydrologic balance and verified by water table measurements and equations for groundwater flow. Groundwater flow into the detention pond is a significant quantity. Solids, carbon, and metals removal efficiencies were determined based on concentration and mass. There was a significant removal if based on concentration. However, based on mass output and stormwater input, removal efficiency for detention ponds with groundwater inflow can be negative as reported within. It is recommended that detention ponds should be designed to minimize groundwater inflow or additional outflow treatment be done to reduce chemicals and solids.

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Wanielista, M.P., Yousef, Y.A., Christopher, J.E., 1980, Management of Runoff From Highway Bridges: University of Central Florida College of Engineering, Orlando Florida, Florida Department of Transportation ReportFL-ER-10-80, 140 p.

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Wanielista, M.P., BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES- ENHANCED EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL USING SWALE BLOCKS, SEPTEMBER 1986

This report has its focus erosion and sediment control of an existing highway using an innovative control concept, namely swale blocks. Swales are an important management practice for source control of rainfall excess (runoff volume) from highways. Inherent in the design is the specification that the swale wetted areas will infiltrate the rainfall excess. The swale design investigated in this work is one which will infiltrate the runoff from the first 3 inches (7.6 cm) of every storm event. When this removal is not achieved during flow through, swale blocks are suggested to retain the remaining waters. Swale blocks or filter berms were designed and constructed to illustrate operational effectiveness. Design aids were developed for various berm heights and highway slopes as a function of berm spacing for an Interstate highway section. Berms were constructed in swales along a four-lane roadway to determine hydraulic and sediment control effectiveness for a particular design.

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Wanielista, M.P., Yousef, Y.A., Harper, H.H., Skene, E.T., Bateman, M., 1982, Effects of Bridging on Biological Productivity in the Floodplain: University of Central Florida College of Engineering, Orlando Florida, Florida Department of Transportation Final Report FL-ER-22-82, 58 p.

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Wanielista, M.P., Yousef, Y.A., Van DeGraaff, L.M., Koo, S.H.R., 1987, Enhanced erosion and sediment control using swale blocks: Florida Department of Transportation Final Report FL-ER-35-87, 49 p.

This report has as its focus erosion and sediment control of an existing highway using an innovative control concept, namely swale blocks. Swales are an important management practice for source control of rainfall excess (run-off volume) from highways. Inherent in the design is the specification that the swale wetted areas will infiltrate the rainfall excess. The swale design investigated in this work is one which will infiltrate the runoff from the first 3 inches (7.6cm) of every storm event. When this removal is not achieved during flow through, swale blocks are suggested to retain the remaining waters. Swale blocks or filter berms were designed and constructed to illustrate operational effectiveness. Design aids were developed for various berm heights and highway slopes as a function of berm spacing for an Interstate highway section. Berms were constructed in swales along a four-lane roadway to determine hydraulic and sediment control effectiveness for a particular design.

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Washington State Department of Transportation, 1995, Highway Runoff Manual: Washington State Department of Transportation.

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Watts, R.J., and Jones, A.P., 1996, Catalytic pavement borders: Washington State Department of Transportation Final Report WA-RD 391.1, 44 p.

The use of a solid photocatalyst, titanium dioxide, as an amendment incorporated into pavement surfaces was investigated as a basis for controlling nonpoint hydrocarbon runoff. Titanium dioxide is an inexpensive and conservative material that, when activated by sunlight, generates oxygen radicals capable of degrading common hydrocarbon contaminants characteristic of nonpoint highway runoff. Six materials were evaluated for fixing the photocatalyst onto pavements; paint base and concrete sealant were most effective. A number of contaminants were effectively degraded using the photocatalytic process including hexadecane, anthracene, and 2,4,6,-trichlorophenol. Standard procedures (e.g., chloride analysis, addition of scavengers) were used to assess the applicability of photocatalytic pavement borders to a range of waste compounds; the data showed that the process has potential to degrade most compounds present in nonpoint highway runoff. The results of this laboratory study indicated that photocatalytic pavement borders have significant potential for mitigating nonpoint highway runoff.

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Weed, R.M., Quality assurance software for the personal computer, FHWA demonstration project, Quality Management, FHWA-SA-96-026.

Demonstration Project 89 on Quality Management was created to provide guidance on the use of practical and effective quality assurance procedures for highway construction projects. The intent is to assure that the level of quality designed into the plans and specifications is actually achieved in the finished product. One part of this effort is the distribution of a software package consisting of several interactive programs developed for use on the personal computer. These extremely user-friendly programs enable the user to analyze both pass/fail and pay adjustment acceptance procedures, construct operating characteristics curves, plot control charts, experiment with computer simulation, perform statistical comparisons of data sets, demonstrate the unreliability of decisions based on a single test result, and explore the effectiveness of stratified random sampling. This comprehensive software package provides highway engineers with the necessary tools to learn why some statistical procedures are inherently superior to others and how to incorporate this knowledge into fair effective construction.

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Whalen, P.J., and Cullum, M.G., 1988, An Assessment of Urban Land Use/Stormwater Runoff Quality Relationships and Treatment Efficiencies of Selected Stormwater Management Systems: South Florida Water Management District Technical Publication 88-9, 56 p.

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Whipple, W., Jr., Hunter, J.V., 1980, Detention Basin Settleability Of UrbanRunoff Pollution: New Jersey Water Resources Research Institute Final Technical Completion Report for Project A-058-NJ, 30 p.

Because of the growing interest in stormwater management, and particularly of the possibility of using detention basins for removing particulate pollution, it is important to determine the effectiveness of such basins for removal of various polluting substances. In a first phase of the present study samples of urban runoff were allowed to settle in a large tube, and the quantity of each pollutant settling in a given time period determined. There was more variability in rate of settlement of specific pollutants than for total suspended solids. Lead and hydrocarbons settled out 60-65% in 32 hours, only slightly slower than total suspended solids. BOD and copper were removed at somewhat lower rates, and zinc even lower. These results confirm the effectiveness of retention of stormwater in removing particulate pollutants. In the second phase of the study two detention basins were modified by constructing out- lets so as to provide prolonged retention of stormwater; and observed trap efficiency of various pollutants was compared to computed trap efficiency and to the results of laboratory settleability of the same pollutants. Results indicate that laboratory settle- ability of the same pollutants. Results indicate that laboratory settleability may be a useful tool in estimating probable effectiveness of dual purpose detention basins for the retention.

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Wiland, B., and Malima, J.F., Jr., 1976, Oil, grease, and other pollutants in highway Runoff: Federal Highway Administration, Texas Department of Transportation Final Report FHWA-TX-77-16-1F, 76 p.

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Winters, G.R., and Gidley, J.L., 1980, Effects of Roadway Runoff on Algae: FHWA/CA/TL-80/24, California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA 241 p.

Caltrans studied the effects of runoff from highway surfaces and cut sloped on the primary productivity of algae. Runoff waters from three highway sites and two cut-slope locations were tested during the winters of 1976 through 1977. Roadway runoff samples were tested during the winters of 1976 through 1977. Roadway runoff samples were collected near Placerville (Route 50), Walnut Creek (I-680), and Los Angeles (I-405), Cut-slope runoff was collected in the Sierra Nevada foothills. The response of indigenous algae to various levels of runoff was measured by the 5-day bioassay using the C14 carbon uptake method. Chemical characteristics of the pavement runoff are included for samples assayed. This report presents the findings of this study. Depending on types and concentrations of contaminants, road runoff can be either stimulatory to algal growth or, in cases where runoff comes from heavily used highways, mildly to several inhibitory. This information will be used in assessing the environmental effects of proposed transportation projects.

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Winters, G.R., and Gidley, J.L., Evaluation of stream channel relocation impacts and mitigation measures on aquatic biota, FHWA/CA/TL-81-01

This study investigated three highway construction projects requiring significant relocation of adjacent streams to determine the impacts of the construction and mitigation measures on aquatic bitoa. A bridge replacement project at Douglas City on Route 299 was studied to investigate the environmental field processes and their effect iveness. The stream location projects were located on Interstate 5 at Hedge Creek north of Dunsmuir, Rock Creek on Route 395 north of Bishop, and Millberry Creek on Route 89 north of Markleeville and the Douglas City Bridge on Route 299. Macroinvertebrate sampling and analyses were used to determine stream relocation impacts on aquatic biota. The I-5 highways project adjacent to Hedge Creek resulted in some adverse impacts on the stream. Natural stream cleaning processes will mitigate these impacts. Rock Creek suffered no discernible impacts. The Millberry Creek relocation will result in a wide variety of habitat niches and will be an excellent small mountain stream once a vegetation cover is completed. The design of the rechannel should have included more consideration of the biological requirements of stream relocations. The Douglas City bridge replacement study showed that environmental protection was minimal, but no discernible adverse impacts resulted.

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Woodward-Clyde Consultants, 1996, Guidance for caltrans fy 1996-97 storm water monitoring: Woodward-Clyde Consultants, 26 p.

Caltrans Districts 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, and 12 have been conducting various types of field monitoring (e.g. highway runoff characterization, source characterization, evaluation of stormwater management practices) to comply with the NPDES Permits issued by various Regional Water Quality Control Boards. To date, the Districts have sampled storm water runoff from 18 sampling sites and for 47 storm events dating back to 1994. An inventory of these sampling sites was conducted in order to collect, assemble, evaluate and report information about the sites. Such information included drainage area, receiving water types, roadway conditions, traffic information, pertinent information on the sampled precipitation events and the monitoring methods, and the descriptions of field and laboratory quality control procedures. This information is summarized in the report "Storm Water Monitoring Site Inventory" (WCC, 1996z). Based on findings fro the inventory, differences were observed in the monitoring procedures practiced by the different Districts. The purpose of this guidance document is to provide recommendations to improve the quality, consistency, and comparability of data that are being collected by the Districts in 1996-96. These data will be complied in a central data base and will be used to characterize storm water runoff from Caltrans facilities and to identify factors that may affect the quality of storm water runoff. The recommendations are not intended to conflict with the District's NPDES Permit's Monitoring requirements. he recommendations also recognize that the districts have monitoring resource constraints, and in general the recommendations are intended to require minimal increase, if any, in resources to implement.

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Woodward-Clyde, 1996, Highway storm water runoff monitoring summary report: Post Storm Report for december 9, 1996 California Department of Transportation, Environmental Program, Project Number 954S142.

This report summarizes the storm water monitoring conducted by Woodward-Clyde Consultants for a storm even beginning on December 9, 1996. This storm water monitoring was conducted on behalf of Districts 8 and 12 of the California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) Three sites were monitored for this event as described in Task Orders 1, 2, and 3 of Caltrans Contract Number 12G668. * Site 1 - State Route 142 at Post Mile 2.6 * Site 2 - Interstate 405 at Post Mile 15.6 (Warner Avenue) * Site 3 - Interstate 10 at Post Mile 30.5 (West of Eureka Street)

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Woodward-Clyde Consultants, 1996, Storm water monitoring sites inventory, Final report: California Department of Transportation, Environmental Program.

To Satisfy the monitoring requirements of their NPDES Permit applications, California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) Districts 3,4,6,8,10 and 12 have been sampling and analyzing storm water runoff from highway sites. As part of Contract 43X827 (Task Order 3), Woodward-Clyde Consultants was requested to: * collect and assemble information on the storm water monitoring sites, tributary areas draining to the monitoring sites and methods used in storm water sampling * evaluate whether the monitoring sites are a) representative of the segment of the roadway being monitored and b) representative of the mix of roadways in the District * assemble and prepare databases of water quality and toxicity data for storm water samples collected prior to and during 1995 - 96 wet season

The following methodology is used to conduct this inventory: 1. prepare and distribute a survey form to the Districts to simplify information reporting by the Districts 2. tabulate information submitted by Districts 3. identify and tabulate information gaps in inventory 4. meet with Districts to collet remaining information for inventory 5. develop criteria to evaluate monitoring site representativeness 6. prepare a form used to evaluate monitoring site representativeness 7. conduct field surveys of the monitoring sites to evaluate representativeness

This report describes the stormwater monitoring sites and provides an evaluation of the representativeness. The report includes nine appendices: Appendix A is an example inventory form used for the survey. Appendices B - H are compilations of site maps, drainage maps, and site photographs for each monitoring site located within each District, Appendix I is a compilation of the completed site representativeness forms for the monitoring sites.

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Woodward-Clyde Consultants, 1996, Santa Clara Valley Runoff Pollution Prevention Program - Metals Control Measures Plan: Woodward-Clyde Consultants, v. 1, 131 p.

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Woodward-Clyde Consultants, 1996, Stormwater Quality Data Report for Sample Collected from January 1995-1996: Woodward-Clyde Consultants, 122 p.

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Woodward-Clyde, 1997, Drain inlet monitoring report and effectiveness assessment, Volume I - Executive summary and technical report: California Department of Transportation, Environmental Program.

As part of a 1994 Federal District 9 Court Order, Caltrans conducted a drain inlet cleaning program in Caltrans District 7 (Los Angeles) during the 1994-1995, 1995-1996 and 1996-1997 wet weather seasons. To evaluate the efficiency of his program, Caltrans conducted a comprehensive monitoring study during the 1996-1997 wet weather season. The study is a key element in a court-approved stipulation that the efficacy of drain inlet cleaning be evaluated. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the effect of drain inlet cleaning on improving the water quality of highway runoff and reducing the pollutant loads to receiving waters. Water quality samples were collected over the duration of the storm event. Samples were obtained at fixed volume intervals rather than time intervals. Such samples, when composited, are referred to as even mean concentrations, and represent the concentration that would be obtained if all the runoff were collected, mixed, and sampled. Sampling was conducted during a period in which a series of closely spaced storms entered the Los Angeles area. The interval between storms ranged from 2 to 5 days. During this period, six storm events, ranging from about 0.25 inches to 1.8 inches were monitored, The rainfall data obtained during the sampling period compared favorable with long-term historical rainfall data for that tie of year. Thus, the rainfall during the sampling period was determined to be representative of the Los Angeles area during that time of year.

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Woodward-Clyde, 1997, Drain inlet monitoring report and effectivness assessment, Volume II - Appendicies: California Department of Transportation, Environmental Program.

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Woodward-Clyde/a;, 1997, Highway storm water runoff monitoring, post storm report for December 9, 1996 -Attachment II-: California Department of Transportation, Environmental Program, Project Number 954S142.

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Woodward-Clyde Consultants, 1997, Santa Clara Valley Runoff Pollution Prevention Program - Evaluation of Nine Metals of Concern: Woodward-Clyde Consultants, v. 2, 131 p.

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Wright, D.L., Perry, H.D., and Blaser, R.E., Controlling erosion along highways with vegetation or other protective cover.

Construction operations in highway corridors disturb the natural vegetation and land contours causing potential erosion sites if left denuded. Minimizing erosion on these areas is based on the principles of maximizing water infiltration and reducing water runoff obtainable with rough and stair-step grading to establish vegetative cover quickly. Rough grading is augmented temporarily by mulches until fast growing temporary canopies develop. Establishing and developing desirable vegetative covers depends on grading and soil preparation, soil amendments, mulches, and changing seed mixtures with seasons. Woodfiver @ 750 lbs/A as a tacking agent for straw has provided a persistent mulch for winter seedlings that is equal to or better than asphalt @ 300 gal/A. The manipulation of these mangements, through plant succession, leads to the develop- ment of a near maintenance free vegetation that needs little mowing and little or no fertilizer as with crownvetch, flat pea, and sericea. Harsh environments often have partial vegetative covers and multi-step seeding and fertilization is required to develop protective vegetative canopies. Adequate soil amendments applied to a properly prepared seedbed eliminate the need for topsoil which is often of poor quality. Sparsely vegetated grass slopes may be eliminated by overseeding with legumes phosphorous, lime, and mulches in favorable seeding seasons.

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Yousef, Y.A., Harper, H.H., Wiseman, L.P., and Bateman, J.M., 1985, Consequential species of heavy metals in highway runoff: Florida Department of Transportation Final Report FL-ER-29-85, 153 p.

Highway stormwater runoff contains significantly higher concentrations of trace metals, particularly Pb, Zn, Cd, Cu, Cr, Fe, and Ni than the water samples from adjacent receiving water bodies. The metals associated with highway runoff tend to be detoxified by the organic content and chemical conditions of natural waters and sediments. Most of the metals are retained by the bottom sediments on a permanent basis if aerobic conditions and high redox-potential (Eh) values are maintained. Retention/detention ponds similar to the Maitland Pond site are very effective in nutrient and heavy metal removal from highway runoff. The bottom sediments concentrate the heavy metals and nutrients discharged into the pond.

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Yousef, Y.A., Hvitved-Jacobsen, T., Wanielista, M.P., and Tolbert, R.D., 1986. Nutrient Transformation in Retention/Detention Ponds Receiving Highway Runoff: Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation, v. 58, no. 8, p. 838-844.

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Yousef, Y.A., Hvitved-Jacobsen, T., Wanielista, M.P., and Harper, H.H., 1987, Removal of Contaminants in Highway Runoff Flowing Through Swales: The Science of the Total Environment, v. 59, p. 391-399.

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Yousef Y.A., Hvitved-Jacobsen, T., Harper H.H., and Lin L.Y., 1990, Heavy Metal Accumulation and Transport Through Detention Ponds Recieving Highway Runoff: The Science of the Total Environment, v. 93, p. 433-440.

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Yousef, Y. A., Lin, L., Sloat, J.V., and Kaye, K.Y., 1991, Maintenance guidelines for accumulated sediments in retention/detention ponds receiving highway runoff, Tallahassee Florida: Florida Department of Transportation Final Report FL-ER-47-91, 189 p.

A two year study funded by FDOT and FHWA was conducted to investigate sedimentation rates, heavy metal enrichment (Cd,Cr,Cu,Fe,Pb,Ni and Zn) and leaching of metals using TCLP methodology by the U.S. EPA from accumulated bottom sediments i detention/retention ponds. These studies assist in developing criteria for maintenance guidelines. Nine ponds covering the state of Florida from Ocala to Miami were studied. The accumulated top loose sediments exhibited higher percent moisture and % volatile matter and lower density than the underlying firm soil. They also showed higher nutrient content and heavy metal content. Metals are retained in the sediments and TCLP results suggest that these sediments are not hazardous waste. Therefore, land disposal of dredged sediments could be possible. A predictive empirical model for the accumulated sediment rates was developed to assist in the determination of the clean out cycle. The calculated clean out cycles for study ponds averaged 25 years.

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Yousef, Y.A., Wanielista, M.P., and Harper, H.H., 1985, Removal of Highway Contaminants by Roadside Swales: Transportation Research Record 1017, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., p. 62-68.

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Yousef, Y.A., Wanielista, M.P., Harper, H.H., and Christopher, J.E., 1982, Management of Drainage Systems from Highway Bridges for Pollution Control: Transportation Research Record 896, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., p. 51-55.

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Yousef, Y.A., Wanielista, M.P., Harper, H.H., Jacobsen, T.H., 1986, Best management practices--Effectiveness of retention/detention for control of contaminants in highway runoff: Florida Department of Transportation Final Report FL-ER-34-86, 138 p.

The fate of nutrients and heavy metals in highway runoff entering retention/detention ponds was studied. Investigations on characterization of highly runoff, water quality in receiving ponds and surrounding drainage basins, isolation chamber studies, accumulation of contaminants by bottom sediments, speciation of heavy metals in the sediments, realize studies under various pH and redox potential and groundwater monitoring surrounding the pond area were carried out in two sites at Maitland Interchange and EPCOT Interchange located in Orange County, Central Florida. Removal efficiencies of nitrogen, phosphorus and heavy metals in a well established pond operating for 7-8 years at Maitland site and a newly constructed pond at EPCOT site were evaluated. Transformations of nutrients and metals between the water and sediment phase under aerobic and anaerobic environments inside isolation chambers were investigated. Also transport of metals through the bottom sediments and potential contamination of groundwater beneath Maitland pond was studied. Maitland pond was very effective and showed outstanding performance in removal of nutrients and heavy metals. Accumulation of metals in the bottom sediments may cause elevated concentrations of some metals in the groundwater immediately beneath the pond. However, the groundwater movement is very slow and the contaminated region is very localized. Most of the metals accumulated in the pond sediments are immobile under current conditions of pH and redox potential.

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Yousef, Y.A., Wanielista, M.P., Harper, H.H., Pearce, D.B. and Tolbert, R.D., 1985, Removal of highway contaminants by roadside swales, Tallahassee, Florida: Florida Department of Transportation Final Report FL-ER-30-85, 171 p.

A research project to investigate the best management practices for highway runoff is being conducted. One phase of the project is to study the removal of highway contaminants by roadside swales. Their hydraulic efficiencies are based on their ability to infiltrate and percolate stormwater. Pollutant removal efficiencies, based on quality considerations, have not been determined. Therefore, field experiments were designed to study pollutant concentrations and mass balances during flow through swales under controlled environments. From the results obtained, it appears that ionic species of metals, nitrogen and phosphorus species may be retained on the swale site by sorption, precipitation, and co-precipitation and biological uptake processes. These processes can reduce pollutant concentrations in highway runoff flowing over swales. Occasional increase in dissolved highway contaminates were observed at intermediate stations during swale experiments particularly close to the inflow point. This may result from the initial flow resuspention and resolubilization of loosely bound contaminants. The removal of heavy metals, nitrogen and phosphorus species on a mass basis was directly related to infiltration losses through swales. Therefore, retention of as much water as possible on the swale area will reduce the highway contaminant loadings to adjacent receiving waters. Recommendations for the construction of roadside swales are presented.

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Yousef, Y.A., Wanielista, M.P., Harper, H.H., and Skene, E.T., 1983, Impact of Bridging on Floodplains: Transportation Research Record 948, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., p. 26-30.

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Yousef, Y.A., Wanielista, M.P., Hvitved-Jacobsen, T., and Harper, H.H., 1984, Fate of heavy metals in stormwater runoff from highway bridges, The Science of the Total Environment, Vol. 33, pp. 233-244.

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Yu, S.L., 1992, Best Management Practices for Highway Drainage, Special Report, from Transportation Research Board 71st Annual Meeting, January 12-16, 1992, Virginia Transportation Research Council, 20 p.

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Yu, S.L., 1993, Stormwater Management for Transportation Facilities: National Cooperative Highway Research Program Synthesis of Highway Practice 174, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., 81 p.

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Yu, S. L., Barnes, S. L. and Gerde, V. W. (1993) Test of Best Management Practices for Controlling Highway Runoff. Charlottesville Va.: Virginia Transportation Research Council VTRC Report no. 93-R16

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Yu, S.L., and Benelmouffok, D.E., 1988, Field Testing of Selected Urban BMP's, Critical Water Issues and Computer Applications, Proceedings of the 15th annual Water Resource Conference, ASCE, New York, NY, pp. 309-312.

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Yu, S.L., and Kaighn, R.J., Jr., 1992, VDOT manual of practice for planning stormwater management: Federal Highway Administration, Virginia Department of Transportation Final Report FHWA/VA-92/R13, 190 p.

The final report is in the form of a manual of practice for the VDOT to use in planning its stormwater management strategies. The manual was proposed to aid in the selection and design of erosion control practices and stormwater control practices for transportation projects in Virginia. Information obtained from VIrginia, other states, and the literature was compiled to help describe the best management practices that will comply with the applicable regulations. Discussed herein are site selection, design of practices, and maintenance and safety considerations. Other topics discussed include applicable federal and state regulations and computer models.

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Yu, S.L., and Kaighn, R.J., 1995, The Control Of Pollution In Highway Runoff Through Biofiltration Volume II: Testing of Roadside Vegetation: Virginia Transportation Research Council Final Report VTRC 95-R29, 40 p.

In 1991, testing the pollutant removal efficiency of selected best management practices (BMPs) to obtain detailed information for design guidelines for stormwater BMPs included in the Virginia Department of Transportation's Stormwater Management Manual. This report summarizes Phase III of this project. Data from a grassed highway median swale monitored in an earlier study was compared to data from the swale monitored in this phase. The swale in this study had no checkdam and differed from the earlier swale in slope, traffic volume, and vegetation height, all of which affected pollutant removal. Manual and automatic sampling techniques were used to monitor highway runoff flowing into and out of the grassed swale. Pollutant removal efficiencies were calculated on a mass balance method. Also, the pollutant removal ability of a short buffer strip receiving highway runoff was examined. Pollutants monitored included total suspended solids, chemical oxygen demand, total phosphorus, and zinc. The results of the field monitoring program suggest that properly designed short buffer strips and swales with check dams can remove pollutants from highway runoff.

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Yu, S.L., Kaighn, R.J., and Liao, S.L., 1994, Testing of best management practices for controlling highway runoff, phase II: Federal Highway Administration, Virginia Transportation Research Council, Final Report FHWA/VA-94-R21, 62 p. In order to obtain the detailed information necessary to develop design guidelines for the stormwater best management practices (BMPs) included in the Virginia Department of Transportation's Stormwater Management Manual, a field program was initiated in 1991 for testing the pollutant removal efficiency of selected BMPs. This report summarizes Phase II of this endeavor. A dry detention pond that drained a small, highly impervious area and a vegetated swale that received runoff from an urban highway were examined. Manual and automatic sampling techniques were used to monitor stormwater flowing into and out of the two facilities. Pollutant removal efficiencies were determined using a mass balance method. Pollutants measured were total suspended solids, chemical oxygen demand, total phosphorus, and zinc. The results suggest that, if properly designed, these types of facilities can be effective tools for removing stormwater pollution from highway runoff.

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Yu, S.L., Kaighn, R.J., Jr., Liao, and O'Flaherty, 1995, The Control Of Pollution In Highway Runoff Through Biofiltration Volume I: Executive Summary: Virginia Transportation Research Council Report VTRC 95-R28, 21 p.

Biofiltration is the process of filtering polluted water through vegetation to remove pollutants. Pollutants may be removed through settling, infiltration, and adsorption to sediment and vegetation. This report summarizes the findings of three parallel studies into the use of biofiltration to remove pollutants from highway runoff. A grassed swale and buffer strip were examined for their ability to remove pollutants including total suspended solids (TSS), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total phosphorus (TP), and zinc (Zn). Secondly, laboratory tests of some wetland species determined their ability to remove these pollutants from highway runoff. Finally, rainfall-runoff data collected at the grassed swale and other sources were used to examine the applicability of several hydrologic methods to very small watersheds. The results of these parallel studies contribute to an understanding of biofiltration and stormwater runoff management.

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Yu, S.L., and Liao, S.L., 1995, The Control of Pollution In Highway Runoff Through Biofiltration Volume III: Laboratory Test of Roadside Vegetation: Virginia Transportation Research Council Final Report VTRC 95-R30, 66 p.

This study compared the effectiveness of pollutant removal in bucket wetlands with cattails (Typha latifolia), reeds (Phragmites sp.), bulrushes (Scirpus), and an unvegetated bucket, and assessed nutrient dynamics in the substrate and water column. The pollutants monitored included total phosphorus (TP), orthophosphate (OP), Zinc (Zn) and chemical oxygen demand (COD), Pollutant removal rates were calculated on a mass balance method. The results were comparable to values reported in the literature. The detention times in this study ranged from 1 day to 21 days. The removal rate differential between vegetated buckets and the control bucket was highest for OP and lowest for COD. Detention time seemed to be important for pollutant removal in this study. The average concentration versus time showed an increased removal of TP, OP, and Zn, but not COD, as time increased. Total suspended solids (TSS) removal is not a function of plant species. The study results suggested that of the three plants, bulrush was most effective for TP and OP removal. Cattail and reed were very effective for Zn and COD removal, respectively. For design considerations, the combination of bulrushes, cattails and reeds is encouraged for pollutant removal. However, the reed used in this study is an invasive species, and should be used with caution.

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Yu, S.L., Wu, Z., Han, M., and Lin, Z.C., 1994, Chesapeake Bay Atmospheric Deposition Study, Year I: Sources And Dry Deposition Of Selected Elements In Aerosol Particles: Atmospheric Environment, v. 28, no. 8, p. 1471-1486.

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Zawlocki, K.R., Ferguson, J.F., and Mar, B.W., A survey of trace organics in highway runoff in Seattle, Washington, WA-RD-39.9.

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Zellhoefer, W.F., 1989, Investigation of Water Quality Impacts of Stormwater Runoff from the Robert E. Lee Bridge Richmond VA, Virginia Department of Transportation, Richmaond VA, 40 p.

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